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Mango
Mangifera indica L.

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Description
Origin and Distribution
Varieties
Blooming and Pollination
Climate
Soil
Propagation
Dwarfing
Culture
Harvesting
Yield
Ripening
Keeping Quality and Storage
Pests and Diseases
Food Uses
Toxicity
Other Uses
Related Species
Food Value

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It is a matter of astonishment to many that the luscious mango, Mangifera indica L., one of the most celebrated of tropical fruits, is a member of the family Anacardiaceae–notorious for embracing a number of highly poisonous plants. The extent to which the mango tree shares some of the characteristics of its relatives will be explained further on. The universality of its renown is attested by the wide usage of the name, mango in English and Spanish and, with only slight variations in French (mangot, mangue, manguier), Portuguese (manga, mangueira), and Dutch (manja). In some parts, of Africa, it is called mangou, or mangoro. There are dissimilar terms only in certain tribal dialects.
Source: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Morton/Mango_arS.html

Fig. 59: Some mangoes (Mangifera indica) more or less commonly grown in dooryards of southern Florida in the mid-1940’s.

Description

The mango tree is erect, 30 to 100 ft (roughly 10-30 m) high, with a broad, rounded canopy which may, with age, attain 100 to 125 ft (30-38 m) in width, or a more upright, oval, relatively slender crown. In deep soil, the taproot descends to a depth of 20 ft (6 in), the profuse, wide-spreading, feeder root system also sends down many anchor roots which penetrate for several feet. The tree is long-lived, some specimens being known to be 300 years old and still fruiting.

Nearly evergreen, alternate leaves are borne mainly in rosettes at the tips of the branches and numerous twigs from which they droop like ribbons on slender petioles 1 to 4 in (2.5-10 cm) long. The new leaves, appearing periodically and irregularly on a few branches at a time, are yellowish, pink, deep-rose or wine-red, becoming dark-green and glossy above, lighter beneath. The midrib is pale and conspicuous and the many horizontal veins distinct. Full-grown leaves may be 4 to 12.5 in (10-32 cm) long and 3/4 to 2 1/8 in (2-5.4 cm) wide. Hundreds and even as many as 3,000 to 4,000 small, yellowish or reddish flowers, 25% to 98% male, the rest hermaphroditic, are borne in profuse, showy, erect, pyramidal, branched clusters 2 1/2 to 15 1/2 in (6-40 cm) high. There is great variation in the form, size, color and quality of the fruits. They may be nearly round, oval, ovoid-oblong, or somewhat kidney-shaped, often with a break at the apex, and are usually more or less lop-sided. They range from 2 1/2 to 10 in (6.25-25 cm) in length and from a few ounces to 4 to 5 lbs (1.8-2.26 kg). The skin is leathery, waxy, smooth, fairly thick, aromatic and ranges from light-or dark-green to clear yellow, yellow-orange, yellow and reddish-pink, or more or less blushed with bright-or dark-red or purple-red, with fine yellow, greenish or reddish dots, and thin or thick whitish, gray or purplish bloom, when fully ripe. Some have a “turpentine” odor and flavor, while others are richly and pleasantly fragrant. The flesh ranges from pale-yellow to deep-orange. It is essentially peach-like but much more fibrous (in some seedlings excessively so-actually “stringy”); is extremely juicy, with a flavor range from very sweet to subacid to tart.

There is a single, longitudinally ribbed, pale yellowish-white, somewhat woody stone, flattened, oval or kidney-shaped, sometimes rather elongated. It may have along one side a beard of short or long fibers clinging to the flesh cavity, or it may be nearly fiberless and free. Within the stone is the starchy seed, monoembryonic (usually single-sprouting) or polyembryonic (usually producing more than one seedling).

Origin and Distribution

Native to southern Asia, especially eastern India, Burma, and the Andaman Islands, the mango has been cultivated, praised and even revered in its homeland since Ancient times. Buddhist monks are believed to have taken the mango on voyages to Malaya and eastern Asia in the 4th and 5th Centuries B.C. The Persians are said to have carried it to East Africa about the 10th Century A.D. It was commonly grown in the East Indies before the earliest visits of the Portuguese who apparently introduced it to West Africa early in the 16th Century and also into Brazil. After becoming established in Brazil, the mango was carried to the West Indies, being first planted in Barbados about 1742 and later in the Dominican Republic. It reached Jamaica about 1782 and, early in the 19th Century, reached Mexico from the Philippines and the West Indies.

In 1833, Dr. Henry Perrine shipped seedling mango plants from Yucatan to Cape Sable at the southern tip of mainland Florida but these died after he was killed by Indians. Seeds were imported into Miami from the West Indies by a Dr. Fletcher in 1862 or 1863. From these, two trees grew to large size and one was still fruiting in 1910 and is believed to have been the parent of the ‘No. 11′ which was commonly planted for many years thereafter. In 1868 or 1869, seeds were planted south of Coconut Grove and the resultant trees prospered at least until 1909, producing the so-called ‘Peach’ or ‘Turpentine’ mango which became fairly common. In 1872, a seedling of ‘No. 11′ from Cuba was planted in Bradenton. In 1877 and 1879, W.P. Neeld made successful plantings on the west coast but these and most others north of Ft. Myers were killed in the January freeze of 1886.

In 1885, seeds of the excellent ‘Bombay’ mango of India were brought from Key West to Miami and resulted in two trees which flourished until 1909. Plants of grafted varieties were brought in from India by a west coast resident, Rev. D.G. Watt, in 1885 but only two survived the trip and they were soon frozen in a cold spell. Another unsuccessful importation of inarched trees from Calcutta was made in 1888. Of six grafted trees that arrived from Bombay in 1889, through the efforts of the United States Department of Agriculture, only one lived to fruit nine years later. The tree shipped is believed to have been a ‘Mulgoa’ (erroneously labeled ‘Mulgoba’, a name unknown in India except as originating in Florida). However, the fruit produced did not correspond to ‘Mulgoa’ descriptions. It was beautiful, crimson-blushed, just under 1 lb (454 g) with golden-yellow flesh. No Indian visitor has recognized it as matching any Indian variety. Some suggest that it was the fruit of the rootstock if the scion had been frozen in the freeze of 1894-95. At any rate, it continued to be known as ‘Mulgoba’, and it fostered many off-spring along the southeastern coast of the State and in Cuba and Puerto Rico, though it proved to be very susceptible to the disease, anthracnose, in this climate. Seeds from this tree were obtained and planted by a Captain Haden in Miami. The trees fruited some years after his death and his widow gave the name ‘Haden’ to the tree that bore the best fruit. This variety was regarded as the standard of excellence locally for many decades thereafter and was popular for shipping because of its tough skin.

George B. Cellon started extensive vegetative propagation (patch-budding) of the ‘Haden’ in 1900 and shipped the fruits to northern markets. P.J. Wester conducted many experiments in budding, grafting and inarching from 1904 to 1908 with less success. Shield-budding on a commercial scale was achieved by Mr. Orange Pound of Coconut Grove in 1909 and this was a pioneer breakthrough which gave strong impetus to mango growing, breeding, and dissemination.

Enthusiastic introduction of other varieties by the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Bureau of Plant Industry, by nurserymen, and other individuals followed, and the mango grew steadily in popularity and importance. The Reasoner Brothers Nursery, on the west coast, imported many mango varieties and was largely responsible for the ultimate establishment of the mango in that area, together with a Mr. J.W. Barney of Palma Sola who had a large collection of varieties and had worked out a feasible technique of propagation which he called “slot grafting”.

Dr. Wilson Popenoe, one of the early Plant Explorers of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, became Director of the Escuela Agricola Panamericana, Tegucigalpa, Honduras. For more than a quarter of a century, he was a leader in the introduction and propagation of outstanding mangos from India and the East Indies, had them planted at the school and at the Lancetilla Experiment Station at Tela, Honduras, and distributed around tropical America.

In time, the mango became one of the most familiar domesticated trees in dooryards or in small or large commercial plantings throughout the humid and semi-arid lowlands of the tropical world and in certain areas of the near-tropics such as the Mediterranean area (Madeira and the Canary Islands), Egypt, southern Africa, and southern Florida. Local markets throughout its range are heaped high with the fragrant fruits in season and large quantities are exported to non-producing countries.

Altogether, the U.S. Department of Agriculture made 528 introductions from India, the Philippines, the West Indies and other sources from 1899 to 1937. Selection, naming and propagation of new varieties by government agencies and individual growers has been going on ever since. The Mango Form was created in 1938 through the joint efforts of the Broward County Home Demonstration Office of the University of Florida’s Cooperative Extension Service and the Fort Lauderdale Garden Club, with encouragement and direction from the University of Florida’s Subtropical Experiment Station (now the Agricultural Research and Education Center) in Homestead, and Mrs. William J. Krome, a pioneer tropical fruit grower. Meetings were held annually, whenever possible, for the exhibiting and judging of promising seedlings, and exchanging and publication of descriptions and cultural information.

Meanwhile, a reverse flow of varieties was going on. Improved mangos developed in Florida have been of great value in upgrading the mango industry in tropical America and elsewhere.

With such intense interest in this crop, mango acreage advanced in Florida despite occasional setbacks from cold spells and hurricanes. But with the expanding population, increased land values and cost and shortage of agricultural labor after World War II, a number of large groves were subdivided into real estate developments given names such as “Mango Heights” and “Mango Terrace”. There were estimated to be 7,000 acres (2,917 ha) in 27 Florida counties in 1954, over half in commercial groves. There were 4,000 acres (1,619 ha) in 1961. Today, mango production in Florida, on approximately 1,700 acres (688 ha), is about 8,818 tons (8,000 MT) annually in “good” years, and valued at $3 million. Fruits are shipped not only to northern markets but also to the United Kingdom, Netherlands, France and Saudi Arabia. In advance of the local season, quantities are imported into the USA from Haiti and the Dominican Republic, and, throughout the summer, Mexican sources supply mangos to the Pacific Coast consumer. Supplies also come in from India and Taiwan.

A mango seed from Guatemala was planted in California about 1880 and a few trees have borne fruit in the warmest locations of that state, with careful protection when extremely low temperatures occur.

Mangos have been grown in Puerto Rico since about 1750 but mostly of indifferent quality. A program of mango improvement began in 1948 with the introduction and testing of over 150 superior cultivars by the University of Puerto Rico. The south coast of the island, having a dry atmosphere, is best suited for mango culture and substantial quantities of mangos are produced there without the need to spray for anthracnose control. The fruits are plentiful on local markets and shipments are made to New York City where there are many Puerto Rican residents. A study of 16 cultivars was undertaken in 1960 to determine those best suited to more intense commercial production. Productivity evaluations started in 1965 and continued to 1972.

The earliest record of the mango in Hawaii is the introduction of several small plants from Manila in 1824. Three plants were brought from Chile in 1825. In 1899, grafted trees of a number of Indian varieties, including ‘Pairi’, were imported. Seedlings became widely distributed over the six major islands. In 1930, the ‘Haden’ was introduced from Florida and became established in commercial plantations. The local industry began to develop seriously after the importation of a series of monoembryonic cultivars from Florida. But Hawaiian mangos are prohibited from entry into mainland USA, Australia, Japan and some other countries, because of the prevalence of the mango seed weevil in the islands.

In Brazil, most mangos are produced in the state of Minas, Gerais where the crop amounts to 243,018 tons (22,000 MT) annually on 24,710 acres (10,000 ha). These are mainly seedlings, as are those of the other states with major mango crops–Ceará, Paraibá, Goias, Pernambuco, and Maranhao. Sao Paulo raises about 63,382 tons (57,500 MT) per year on 9,884 acres (4,000 ha). The bulk of the crop is for domestic consumption. In 1973, Brazil exported 47.4 tons (43 MT) of mangos to Europe.

Mango growing began with the earliest settlers in North Queensland, Australia, with seeds brought casually from India, Ceylon, the East Indies and the Philippines. In 1875, 40 varieties from India were set out in a single plantation. Over the years, selections have been made for commercial production and culture has extended to subtropical Western Australia.

There is no record of the introduction of the mango into South Africa but a plantation was set out in Durban about 1860. Production today probably has reached about 16,535 tons (15,000 MT) annually, and South Africa exports fresh mangos by air to Europe.

Kenya exports mature mangos to France and Germany and both mature and immature to the United Kingdom, the latter for chutney-making. Egypt produces 110,230 tons (100,000 MT) of mangos annually and exports moderate amounts to 20 countries in the Near East and Europe. Mango culture in the Sudan occupies about 24,710 acres (10,000 ha) producing a total of 66,138 tons (60,000 MT) per year.

India, with 2,471,000 acres (1,000,000 ha) of mangos (70% of its fruit-growing area) produces 65% of the world’s mango crop–9,920,700 tons (9,000,000 MT). In 1985, mango growers around Hyderabad sought government protection against terrorists who cut down mango orchards unless the owners paid ransom (50,000 rupees in one case). India far outranks all other countries as an exporter of processed mangos, shipping 2/3 of the total 22,046 tons (20,000 MT). Mango preserves go to the same countries receiving the fresh fruit and also to Hong Kong, Iraq, Canada and the United States. Following India in volume of exports are Thailand, 774,365 tons (702,500 MT), Pakistan and Bangladesh, followed by Brazil. Mexico ranks 5th with about 100,800 acres (42,000 ha) and an annual yield of approximately 640,000 tons (580,000 MT). The Philippines have risen to 6th place. Tanzania is 7th, the Dominican Republic, 8th and Colombia, 9th.

Leading exporters of fresh mangos are: the Philippines, shipping to Hong Kong, Singapore and Japan; Thailand, shipping to Singapore and Malaysia; Mexico, shipping mostly ‘Haden’ to the United States, 2,204 tons (2,000 MT), annually, also to Japan and Paris; India, shipping mainly ‘Alphonso’ and ‘Bombay’ to Europe, Malaya, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait; Indonesia, shipping to Hong Kong and Singapore; and South Africa shipping (60% ‘Haden’ and ‘Kent’) by air to Europe and London in mid-winter.

Chief importers are England and France, absorbing 82% of all mango shipments. Mango consumers in England are mostly residents of Indian origin, or English people who formerly lived in India.

The first International Symposium on Mango and Mango Culture, of the International Society for Horticultural Science, was held in New Delhi, India, in 1969 with a view to assembling a collection of germplasm from around the world and encouraging cooperative research on rootstocks and bearing behavior, hybridization, disease, storage and transport problems, and other areas of study.

Fig. 60: The tiny, colorful ‘Azucar’ mango of Santa Marta and Baranquilla, Colombia, is sweet and freestone.

Varieties

The original wild mangos were small fruits with scant, fibrous flesh, and it is believed that natural hybridization has taken place between M. indica and M. sylvatica Roxb. in Southeast Asia. Selection for higher quality has been carried on for 4,000 to 6,000 years and vegetative propagation for 400 years.

Over 500 named varieties (some say 1,000) have evolved and have been described in India. Perhaps some are duplicates by different names, but at least 350 are propagated in commercial nurseries. In 1949, K.C. Naik described 82 varieties grown in South India. L.B. and R.N. Singh presented and illustrated 150 in their monograph on the mangos of Uttar Pradesh (1956). In 1958, 24 were described as among the important commercial types in India as a whole, though in the various climatic zones other cultivars may be prominent locally. Of the 24, the majority are classed as early or mid-season:

Early:

‘Bombay Yellow’ (‘Bombai’)–high quality

‘Malda’ (‘Bombay Green’)

‘01our’ (polyembryonic)–a heavy bearer.

‘Pairi’ (‘Paheri’, ‘Pirie’, ‘Peter’, ‘Nadusalai’, ‘grape’, ‘Raspuri’, ‘Goha bunder’)

‘Safdar Pasand’

‘Suvarnarekha’ (‘Sundri’)

Early to Mid-Season:

‘Langra’

‘Rajapuri’

Mid-Season:

‘Alampur Baneshan’–high quality but shy bearer

‘Alphonso’ (‘Badami’, ‘gundu’, ‘appas’, ‘khader’)–high quality

‘Bangalora’(‘Totapuri’, ‘collection’, ‘kili-mukku’, abu Samada’ in the Sudan)–of highest quality, best keeping, regular bearer, but most susceptible to seed weevil.

‘Banganapally’ (‘Baneshan’, ‘chaptai’, ‘Safeda’)–of high quality but shy bearer

‘Dusehri’ (‘Dashehari aman’, ‘nirali aman’, ‘kamyab’)–high quality

‘Gulab Khas’

‘Zardalu’

‘K.O. 11′

Mid- to Late-Season:

‘Rumani’ (often bearing an off-season crop)

‘Samarbehist’ (‘Chowsa’, ‘Chausa’, ‘Khajri’)–high quality

‘Vanraj’

‘K.O. 7/5′ (‘Himayuddin’ ´ ‘Neelum’)

Late:

‘Fazli’ (‘Fazli malda’)–high quality

‘Safeda Lucknow’

Often Late:

‘Mulgoa’–high quality but a shy bearer

‘Neelum’ (sometimes twice a year)–somewhat dwarf, of indifferent quality, and anthracnose-susceptible.

Most of the leading Indian cultivars are seedling selections. Over 50,000 crosses were made over a period of 20 years in India and 750 hybrids were raised and screened. Of these, ‘Mallika’, a cross of ‘Neelum’ (female parent) with ‘Dashehari’ (male parent) was released for cultivation in 1972. The hybrid tends toward regular bearing, the fruits are showier and are thicker of flesh than either parent, the flavor is superior and keeping quality better. The season is nearly a month later than ‘Dashehari’. Another new hybrid, ‘Amrapali’, of which ‘Dashehari’ was the female parent and ‘Neelum’ the male, is definitely dwarf, precocious, a regular and heavy bearer, and late in the season. The fruit is only medium in size; flesh is rich orange, fiberless, sweet and 2 to 3 times as high in carotene as either parent.

The Central Food Technological Research Institute Experiment Station in Hyderabad has evaluated 9 “table varieties” (firm-fleshed), 4 “juicy” varieties, and 5 hybrids as to suitability for processing. ‘Baneshan’, ‘Suvarnarekha’ and ‘5/5 Rajapuri’ ´ ‘Langra’ were deemed suitable for slicing and canning. ‘Baneshan’, ‘Navaneetam’, ‘Goabunder’, ‘Royal Special’, ‘Hydersaheb’ and ‘9/4 Neelum Baneshan’, for canned juice; and ‘Baneshan’, ‘Navaneetam’, ‘Goabunder’, ‘K.O. 7′and ‘Sharbatgadi’ for canned nectar.
Fig. 63: ‘Black Cold’ mangoes, dark-green externally when ripe, are partly peeled like “radish roses” on the Bangkok market to show their yellow, fiberless flesh.

It is interesting to note that all but four of the leading Indian cultivars are yellow-skinned. The exceptions are: two yellow with a red blush on shoulders, one red-yellow with a blush of red, and one green. In Thailand, there is a popular mango called ‘Tong dum’ (‘Black Gold’) marketed when the skin is very dark-green and usually displayed with the skin at the stem end cut into points and spread outward to show the golden flesh in the manner that red radishes are fashioned into “radish roses” in American culinary art.

European consumers prefer a deep-yellow mango that develops a reddish-pink tinge. In Florida, the color of the mango is an important factor and everyone admires a handsome mango more or less generously overlaid with red. Red skin is considered a necessity in mangos shipped to northern markets, even though the quality may be inferior to that of non-showy cultivars. Also, dependable bearing and shippability are rated above internal qualities for practical reasons. And a shipping mango must be one that can be picked 2 weeks before full maturity without appreciable loss of flavor. Too, there must be several varieties to extend the season over at least 3 months.

Florida mangos are classed in 4 groups:

1–Indian varieties, mainly monoembryonic, introduced in the past and maintained mostly in collections; typically of somewhat “turpentine” character.

2–Philippine and Indo-Chinese types, largely polyembryonic, non-turpentiney, fiberless, fairly anthracnose-resistant. Scattered in dooryard plantings.

3–West Indian/South American mangos, especially ‘Turpentine’ and ‘No.11′ and the superior ‘Julie’ from Trinidad, ‘Madame Francis’ from Haiti, ‘Itamaraca’ from Brazil. These are non-commercial.

4–Florida-originated selections or cultivars, of which many have risen and declined over the decades.

In general, mangos from the Philippines (‘Carabao’) and Thailand (‘Saigon’, ‘Cambodiana’) behave better in Florida’s humidity than the Indian varieties.

The much-prized ‘Haden’ was being recognized in the late 1930’s and early 1940’s as anthracnose-prone, a light and irregular bearer, and was being replaced by more disease-resistant and prolific cultivars. The present-day leaders for commercial production and shipping are ‘Tommy Atkins’, ‘Keitt’, ‘Kent’, ‘Van Dyke’ and Jubilee’. The first 2 represent 50% of the commercial crop.
Plate XXVIII: MANGO, Mangifera indica–’Kent’, ‘Tommy Atkins’, and ‘Irwin’

‘Tommy Atkins’ (from a seed planted early in the 1920’s at Fort Lauderdale, Florida; commercially adopted in the late 1950’s); oblong-oval; medium to large; skin thick, orange-yellow, largely overlaid with bright- to dark-red and heavy purplish bloom, and dotted with many large, yellow-green lenticels. Flesh medium- to dark-yellow, firm, juicy, with medium fiber, of fair to good quality; flavor poor if over-fertilized and irrigated. Seed small. Season: mid-May to early July, or late June through July, depending on spring weather; can be picked early, developing good color and usually has long shelf-life. Sometimes there is an open space in the flesh at the stem-end. Interior softening near the seed occurs in some years. Anthracnose-resistant.

‘Keitt’–rounded-oval to ovate; large; skin medium-thick, yellow with light-red blush and a lavender bloom; the many lenticels small, yellow to red. Flesh orange-yellow, firm, fiberless except near the seed; of rich, sweet flavor; very good quality. Seed small, or medium to large. Season: early July through August or August and September, depending on spring weather. Tree small to medium, erect, open, rather scraggly but very productive. For market acceptance, requires post-harvest ethylene treatment to enhance color.

‘Kent’–ovate, thick; large; skin greenish-yellow with dark-red blush and gray bloom; many small, yellow lenticels. Flesh fiberless, juicy, sweet; very good to excellent. Seed small. Season: July and August and often into September, but if left on too long the seed tends to sprout in the fruit–a condition called ovipary. Subject to black spot. Tree is of erect, slender habit, of moderate size, precocious; bears very well and fruit ships well, but, for the market, needs ethylene treatment to enrich color.

‘Van Dyke’ and ‘Jubilee’ are relatively new cultivars maturing from late June through July. ‘Van Dyke’ is of superior color and excellent quality but subject to anthracnose and may not hold its place for long.

Two cultivars that have stood the test of time and have been shipped north on a lesser scale are:

‘Sensation’ (originated in North Miami; tree moved to Carmichael grove near Perrine and propagated and grown commercially since 1949). Oval, oblique, and faintly beaked; medium to medium-small; skin thin, adherent; basically yellow to yellow-orange overlaid with dark plum-red, and with tiny, pale-yellow lenticels. Flesh pale-yellow, firm, with very little fiber, faintly aromatic, of mild, slightly sweet flavor; of good quality. Monoembryonic. Tree bears heavily in August.

‘Palmer’–oblong-ovate, plump; large; skin medium-thick, orange-yellow with red blush and pale bloom and many large lenticels. Flesh dull-yellow, firm, with very little or no fiber; of fair to good quality. Seed long, of medium size. Season: July and August, sometimes into September. Tree is medium to large; precocious; usually bears well.

The leading cultivar for local market at present is:

‘Irwin’ (a seedling of ‘Lippens’, planted by F.D. Irwin of Miami in 1939; bore its first fruits in 1945); oblong-ovate, one shoulder oblique; of medium size; skin orange to pink with extensive dark-red blush and small, white lenticels. Seed of medium size. Flesh yellow, almost fiberless, with mild, sweet flavor; good to very good quality. Seed small. Season: mid-May to early July; or June through July. Tree somewhat dwarf; bears heavy crops of fruits in clusters. Fruit no longer shipped because if picked before full maturity ripens with a mottled appearance which is not acceptable on the market.
Plate XXVII: MANGO, Mangifera indica–’Cambodiana’

Non-colorful or not high-yielding cultivars of excellent quality recommended for Florida homeowners include:

‘Carrie’ (somewhat dwarf); ‘Edward’ (‘Haden’ seedling); ‘Florigon’; ‘Jacquelin’; ‘Cambodiana’; ‘Cecil’; ‘Saigon’.

Among cultivars formerly commercial but largely top-worked to others favored for various reasons: ‘Davis-Haden’ (a ‘Haden’ seedling); ‘Fascell’; ‘Lippens’ (a ‘Haden’ seedling); ‘Smith’ (a ‘Haden’ seedling); ‘Spring-fels’; ‘Dixon’; ‘Sunset’; ‘Zill’ (a ‘Haden’ seedling).

Many cultivars that have lost popularity in Florida have become of importance elsewhere. ‘Sandersha’, for example, has proved remarkably resistant to most mango fruit diseases in South Africa.

The histories and descriptions of 46 cultivars growing in Brazil were published in 1955. These included ‘Brooks’, ‘Cacipura’, ‘Cambodiana’, ‘Goa-Alphonso’, ‘Haden’, ‘Mulgoba’, ‘Pairi’, ‘Pico’, ‘Sandersha’, ‘Singapore’, ‘White Langra’, all brought in from Florida. The rest are mostly local seedlings. ‘Haden’ was introduced from Florida in 1931 and has been widely cultivated. It is still included among the cultivars of major importance, the others being ‘Extrema’, ‘Non-Plus-Ultra’. ‘Carlota’; but in 1977 the leading cultivar in Brazil was reported to be ‘Bourbon’, also known as ‘Espada’. It is found especially in northeastern Brazil but is recommended for all other mango areas. A collection of 53 cultivars is maintained at Piricicaba and another of 82 at Bahia.

Of Mexican mangos, 65% are Florida selections; 35% are of the type commonly grown in the Philippines. Over a period of 3 years detailed studies have been made of the commercial cultivars in Culiacan, Sinaloa, Mexico, with a view to determining the most profitable for export. Results indicated that propagation of ‘Purple Irwin’, ‘Red Irwin’, ‘Sensation’ and ‘Zill’ should be discontinued, and that ‘Haden’, ‘Kent’ and ‘Keitt’ will continue to be planted, the first two because, of their color and quality, and the third in spite of its deficiency in color.

‘Manila’, a Philippine mango, early-ripening, is much grown in Veracruz. ‘Manzanillo-Nunez’, a chance seedling first noticed in 1972, is gaining in popularity because of its regular bearing, skin color (75% red), nearly fiberless flesh, good quality, high yield and resistance to anthracnose.

‘Julie’ is the main mango exported from the West Indies to Europe. The fruit is somewhat flattened on one side, of medium size; the flesh is not completely fiberless but is of good flavor. It came to Florida from Trinidad but has long been popular in Jamaica. The tree is somewhat dwarf, has 30% to 50% hermaphrodite flowers; bears well and regularly. It is adaptable to humid environments and disease-resistant and the fruit is resistant to the fruit fly. ‘Julie’ has been grown in Ghana since the early 1920’s. From ‘Julie’, the well-known mango breeder, Lawrence Zill, developed ‘Carrie’, but ‘Julie’ has not been planted in Florida for many years.

Grafted plants of the ‘Bombay Green’, so popular in Jamaica, were brought there from India in 1869 by the then governor, Sir John Peter Grant, but were planted in Castleton gardens where the trees flourished but failed to fruit in the humid atmosphere. Years later, a Director of Agriculture had budwood from these trees transferred to rootstocks at Hope Gardens. The results were so successful that the ‘Bombay Green’ became commonly planted on the island. The author brought six grafted trees from Jamaica to Miami in 1951 and, after they were released from quarantine, distributed them to the Subtropical Experiment Station in Homestead, the Newcomb Nursery, and a private grower, but all succumbed to the cold in succeeding winters. The fruit is completely fiberless and freestone so that it is frequently served cut in half and eaten with a spoon. The seed is pierced with a mango fork and served also so that the luscious flesh that adheres to it may be enjoyed as well.

One of the best-known mangos peculiar to the West Indies is ‘Madame Francis’ which is produced abundantly in Haiti. It is a large, flattened, kidney-shaped mango, light-green, slightly yellowish when ripe, with orange, low-fiber, richly flavored flesh. This mango has been regularly exported to Florida in late spring after fumigation against the fruit fly.

Ghana received more than a dozen cultivars back in the early 1920’s. In 1973, it was found that only three of these–’Julie’, ‘Jaffna’ and ‘Rupee’–could be recognized with certainty. More than a dozen other cultivars were brought in much later from Florida and India. An effort was begun in 1967 to classify the seedlings (from 10 to 50 years of age) in the Ejura district, the Ejura Agricultural Station, and the plantation of the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, in order to eliminate confusion and have identifiable cultivars marked for future research. After checking with available published material on other cultivars for possible resemblances, descriptions and photographs of 21 newly named cultivars were published in 1973. Of these, 12 are fibrous and 9 fiberless. (See Godfrey-Sam-Aggrey and Arbutiste in the Bibliography). One of the fibrous cultivars, named ‘Tee-Vee-Dee’, is so well flavored and aromatic that it is locally extremely popular.

Until the mid-1960’s mangos were grown only in dooryards in Surinam and the few varieties were largely polyembryonic types from Indonesia, and these have given rise to many chance seedlings. In order to discover the best for commercial planting, mango exhibits were sponsored and budwood of the best selections has been grafted onto various rootstocks at the Paramaribo Agricultural Experiment Station. The two most important local mangos are:

‘Golek’ (from Java; also grown in Queensland) long-oblong; skin dull-green or yellowish-green even when ripe, leathery; flesh pale yellow, thick, fiberless, sweet, rich, of excellent quality. Keeps well in cold storage for 3 weeks. Season: early (December in Queensland). Tree bears moderately to heavily. This cultivar is considered the most promising for large-scale culture and export. In Queensland it tends to crack longitudinally as it matures.

‘Roodborstje’–medium to large; skin deep-red; flesh sweet, juicy, with very little fiber. Not a good keeper. Season: early to midseason. Tree is a heavy bearer.

In Venezuela, eleven cultivars were evaluated by food technologists for processing suitability–’Blackman’, ‘Glenn’, ‘Irwin’, ‘Kent’, ‘Lippens’, ‘Martinica’, ‘Sensation’, ‘Smith’, ‘Selection 80′, ‘Selection 85′, and ‘Zill’. The most appropriate, because of physicochemical characteristics and productivity were determined to be: ‘Glenn’, ‘Irwin’, ‘Kent’ and ‘Zill’.

In Hawaii, ‘Haden’ has represented 90% of all commercial production. ‘Pairi’ is more prized for home use but is a shy bearer, a poor keeper, not as colorful as ‘Haden’, so it never attained commercial status. In a search for earlier and later varieties of commercial potential, over 125 varieties were collected and tested between 1934 and 1969. In 1956, one of the winning entries in a mango contest attracted much attention. After propagation and due observation it was named ‘Gouveia’ in 1969 and described as: ovate-oblong, of medium size, with medium-thick, ochre-yellow skin blushed with blood-red over 2/3 of the surface. Flesh is orange, nearly fiberless, sweet, juicy. Seed is small, slender, monoembryonic. Season: late. Tree is of medium size, a consistent but not heavy bearer. In quality tests ‘Gouveia’ received top scoring over ‘Haden’, ‘Pairi’, and several other cultivars. Florida mangos rated as promising for Hawaii were ‘Pope’, ‘Kent’, ‘Keitt’ and ‘Brooks’ (later than ‘Haden’) and ‘Earlygold’ and ‘Zill’ (earlier than ‘Haden’).

In Queensland, ‘Kensington Pride’ is the leading commercial cultivar in the drier areas. In humid regions it is anthracnose-prone and requires spraying. It is thought to have been introduced by traders in Bowen who were shipping horses for military use in India. It may be called ‘Kensington’, ‘Bowen’, or, because of its color, ‘Apple’ or ‘Strawberry’. The fruit is distinctly beaked when immature, with a groove extending from the stem to the beak. It is medium-large; the skin is bright orange-yellow with red-pink blush overlying areas exposed to the sun. Flesh is orange, thick, nearly fiberless, juicy, of rich flavor. This cultivar is classified as mid-season. The fruit matures from early to mid-November at latitude 13°S; 6 weeks later at Bowen (20°S) and 1 week later for each degree of latitude from Bowen to Brisbane. But at 17°S and an altitude of 1,148 ft (350 m) peak maturity is in mid- to late-January. Polyembryonic. The fruit ships well but the tree is not a dependable nor heavy bearer. It has an oval crown and unusually sweet-scented leaves.

In 1981, after evaluating 43 accessions seeking to lengthen the mango season in Queensland, 9 that mature between 2 weeks earlier and 4 weeks later than ‘Kensington Pride’ were chosen for commercial testing. Only one, ‘Banana-1′, was a Queensland selection. The other 8 were introductions from Florida–’Smith’, ‘Palmer’, ‘Haden’, ‘Zill’, ‘Carrie’, ‘Irwin’, ‘Kent’, ‘Keitt’. ‘Kent’ and ‘Haden’ have proved to be highly susceptible to blackspot in Queensland; ‘Keitt’, ‘Smith’, and ‘Zill’ less so; and ‘Palmer’ and ‘Kensington Pride’ resistant.

In the Philippines, the ‘Carabao’ constitutes 66% of the crop and ‘Pico’ 26%. These cultivars, apparently of Southeast Asian origin have remained the most commonly grown and exported for many years.

In Israel, ‘Haden’ has been popular for a long time though it is sensitive to low temperatures in spring. An Egyptian introduction, ‘Mabroka’ is later in season and escapes the early frosts. ‘Maya’, a local seedling of ‘Haden’ has done well. Perhaps the most promising today is ‘Nimrod’, a seedling of ‘Maya’, open pollinated, perhaps by ‘Haden’, planted in 1943, observed for 20 years and budded progeny for another 9 years; named and released in 1970. The fruit is round-ovate, large; skin is fairly thin, olive-green to yellow-green, blushed with red; attractive. Flesh is deep-yellow, nearly fiberless, of fair flavor. Seed is large, monoembryonic. Matures in mid-season (all August to mid-September in Israel). Tree is large, upright, very cold-resistant. Average yield is 480 lbs (218 kg) per tree over 10 years.

It is impressive to see how the early favorite, ‘Haden’, has influenced mango culture in many parts of the world. Today, the Subtropical Horticulture Research Unit of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Agricultural Research and Education Center of the University of Florida, together maintain 125 mango cultivars as a resource for mango growers and breeders in many countries.

Fig. 65: Mango trees produce massive sprays of reddish or yellowish flowers but only a few fruits develop from each spray.

Blooming and Pollination

Mango trees less than 10 years old may flower and fruit regularly every year. Thereafter, most mangos tend toward alternate, or biennial, bearing. A great deal of research has been done on this problem which may involve the entire tree or only a portion of the branches. Branches that fruit one year may rest the next, while branches on the other side of the tree will bear.

Blooming is strongly affected by weather, dryness stimulating flowering and rainy weather discouraging it. In most of India, flowering occurs in December and January; in northern India, in January and February or as late as March. There are some varieties called “Baramasi” that flower and fruit irregularly throughout the year. The cultivar ‘Sam Ru Du’ of Thailand bears 3 crops a year–in January, June and October. In the drier islands of the Lesser Antilles, there are mango trees that flower and fruit more or less continuously all year around but never heavily at any time. Some of these are cultivars introduced from Florida where they flower and fruit only once a year. In southern Florida, mango trees begin to bloom in late November and continue until February or March, inasmuch as there are early, medium, and late varieties. During exceptionally warm winters, mango trees have been known to bloom 3 times in succession, each time setting and maturing fruit.

In the Philippines, various methods are employed to promote flowering: smudging (smoking), exposing the roots, pruning, girdling, withholding nitrogen and irrigation, and even applying salt. In the West Indies, there is a common folk practice of slashing the trunk with a machete to make the tree bloom and bear in “off” years. Deblos-soming (removing half the flower clusters) in an “on” year will induce at least a small crop in the next “off” year. Almost any treatment or condition that retards vegetative growth will have this effect. Spraying with growth-retardant chemicals has been tried, with inconsistent results. Potassium nitrate has been effective in the Philippines.

In India, the cultivar ‘Dasheri’, which is self incompatible, tends to begin blooming very early (December and January) when no other cultivars are in flower. And the early particles show a low percentage of hermaphrodite flowers and a high incidence of floral malformation. Furthermore, early blooms are often damaged by frost. It has been found that a single mechanical deblossoming in the first bud-burst stage, induces subsequent development of particles with less malformation, more hermaphrodite flowers, and, as a result, a much higher yield of fruits.

There is one cultivar, ‘Neelum’, in South India that bears heavily every year, apparently because of its high rate (16%) of hermaphrodite flowers. (The average for ‘Alphonso’ is 10%.) However, Indian horticulturists report great tree-to-tree variation in seedlings of this cultivar; in some surveys as much as 84% of the trees were rated as poor bearers. Over 92% of ‘Bangalora’ seedlings have been found bearing light crops.

Mango flowers are visited by fruit bats, flies, wasps, wild bees, butterflies, moths, beetles, ants and various bugs seeking the nectar and some transfer the pollen but a certain amount of self-pollination also occurs. Honeybees do not especially favor mango flowers and it has been found that effective pollination by honeybees would require 3 to 6 colonies per acre (6-12 per ha). Many of the unpollinated flowers are shed or fail to set fruit, or the fruit is set but is shed when very young. Heavy rains wash off pollen and thus prevent fruit setting. Some cultivars tend to produce a high percentage of small fruits without a fully developed seed because of unfavorable weather during the fruit-setting period.

Shy-bearing cultivars of otherwise desirable characteristics are hybridized with heavy bearers in order to obtain better crops. For example: shy-bearing ‘Himayuddin’ ´ heavy-bearing ‘Neelum’. Breeders usually hand-pollinate all the flowers that are open in a cluster, remove the rest, and cover the inflorescence with a plastic bag. But researchers in India have found that there is very little chance of contamination and that omitting the covering gives as much as 3.85% fruit set in place of 0.23% to 1.57% when bagged. Thus large populations of hybrids may be raised for study. One of the latest techniques involves grafting the male and female parents onto a chosen tree, then covering the panicles with a polyethylene bag, and introducing house flies as pollinators.

Indian scientists have found that pollen for crossbreeding can be stored at 32° F (0° C) for 10 hours. If not separated from the flowers, it remains viable for 50 hours in a humid atmosphere at 65° to 75° F (18.33° -23.09° C). The stigma is receptive 18 hours before full flower opening and, some say, for 72 hours after.

Climate

The mango is naturally adapted to tropical lowlands between 25°N and 25°S of the Equator and up to elevations of 3,000 ft (915 m). It is grown as a dooryard tree at slightly cooler altitudes but is apt to suffer cold damage. The amount of rainfall is not as critical as when it occurs. The best climate for mango has rainfall of 30 to 100 in (75-250 cm) in the four summer months (June to September) followed by 8 months of dry season. This crop is well suited to irrigated regions bordering the desert frontier in Egypt. Nevertheless, the tree flourishes in southern Florida’s approximately 5 months of intermittent, scattered rains (October to February), 3 months of drought (usually March to May) and 4 months of frequently heavy rains (June to September).

Rain, heavy dews or fog during the blooming season (November to March in Florida) are deleterious, stimulating tree growth but interfering with flower production and encouraging fungus diseases of the inflorescence and fruit. In Queensland, dry areas with rainfall of 40 in (100 cm), 75% of which occurs from January to March, are favored for mango growing because vegetative growth is inhibited and the fruits are well exposed to the sun from August to December, become well colored, and are relatively free of disease. Strong winds during the fruiting season cause many fruits to fall prematurely.

Soil

The mango tree is not too particular as to soil type, providing it has good drainage. Rich, deep loam certainly contributes to maximum growth, but if the soil is too rich and moist and too well fertilized, the tree will respond vegetatively but will be deficient in flowering and fruiting. The mango performs very well in sand, gravel, and even oolitic limestone (as in southern Florida and the Bahamas)

A polyembryonic seedling, ‘No. 13-1′, introduced into Israel from Egypt in 1931, has been tested since the early 1960’s in various regions of the country for tolerance of calcareous soils and saline conditions. It has done so well in sand with a medium (15%) lime content and highly saline irrigation water (over 600 ppm) that it has been adopted as the standard rootstock in commercial plantings in salty, limestone districts of Israel. Where the lime content is above 30%, iron chelates are added.

Propagation

Mango trees grow readily from seed. Germination rate and vigor of seedlings are highest when seeds are taken from fruits that are fully ripe, not still firm. Also, the seed should be fresh, not dried. If the seed cannot be planted within a few days after its removal from the fruit, it can be covered with moist earth, sand, or sawdust in a container until it can be planted, or kept in charcoal dust in a dessicator with 50% relative humidity. Seeds stored in the latter manner have shown 80% viability even after 70 days. High rates of germination are obtained if seeds are stored in polyethylene bags but the seedling behavior may be poor. Inclusion of sphagnum moss in the sack has no benefit and shows inferior rates of germination over 2- to 4-week periods, and none at all at 6 weeks.

The flesh should be completely removed. Then the husk is opened by carefully paring around the convex edge with a sharp knife and taking care not to cut the kernel, which will readily slide out. Husk removal speeds germination and avoids cramping of roots, and also permits discovery and removal of the larva of the seed weevil in areas where this pest is prevalent. Finally, the husked kernels are treated with fungicide and planted without delay. The beds must have solid bottoms to prevent excessive taproot growth, otherwise the taproot will become 18 to 24 in (45-60 cm) long while the top will be only one third to a half as high, and the seedling will be difficult to transplant with any assurance of survival. The seed is placed on its ventral (concave) edge with 1/4 protruding above the sand. Sprouting occurs in 8 to 14 days in a warm, tropical climate; 3 weeks in cooler climates. Seedlings generally take 6 years to fruit and 15 years to attain optimum yield for evaluation.

However, the fruits of seedlings may not resemble those of the parent tree. Most Indian mangos are monoembryonic; that is, the embryo usually produces a single sprout, a natural hybrid from accidental crossing, and the resulting fruit may be inferior, superior, or equal to that of the tree from which the seed came. Mangos of Southeast Asia are mostly polyembryonic. In these, generally, one of the embryos in the seed is a hybrid; the others (up to 4) are vegetative growths which faithfully reproduce the characteristics of the parent. The distinction is not absolute, and occasionally a seed supposedly of one class may behave like the other.

Seeds of polyembryonic mangos are most convenient for local and international distribution of desirable varieties. However, in order to reproduce and share the superior monoembryonic selections, vegetative propagation is necessary. Inarching and approach-grafting are traditional in India. Tongue-, saddle-, and root-grafting (stooling) are also common Indian practices. Shield- and patch-grafting have given up to 70% success but the Forkert system of budding has been found even more practical. After many systems were tried, veneer grafting was adopted in Florida in the mid-1950’s. Choice of rootstock is important. Use of seedlings of unknown parentage has resulted in great variability in a single cultivar. Some have believed that polyembryonic rootstocks are better than monoembryonic, but this is not necessarily so. In trials at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, 10-year-old trees of ‘Neelum’ grafted on polyembryonic ‘Bapakkai’ showed vigor and spread of tree and productivity far superior to those grafted on ‘Olour’ which is also polyembryonic. Those grafted on monoembryonic rootstock also showed better growth and yield than those on ‘Olour’. In 1981, experimenters at Lucknow, India, reported the economic advantage of “stone-grafting”, which requires less space in the nursery and results in greater uniformity. Scions from the spring flush of selected cultivars are defoliated and, after a 10-day delay, are cleft-grafted on 5-day-old seedlings which must thereafter be kept in the shade and protected from drastic changes in the weather.

Old trees of inferior types are top-worked to better cultivars by either side-grafting or crown-grafting the beheaded trunk or beheaded main branches. Such trees need protection from sunburn until the graft affords shade. In South Africa, the trunks are whitewashed and bunches of dry grass are tied onto cut branch ends. The trees will bear in 2 to 3 years. Attempts to grow 3 or 4 varieties on one rootstock may appear to succeed for a while but the strongest always outgrows the others.

Cuttings, even when treated with growth regulators, are only 40% successful. Best results are obtained with cuttings of mature trees, ringed 40 days before detachment, treated, and rooted under mist. But neither cuttings nor air layers develop good root systems and are not practical for establishing plantations. Clonal propagation through tissue culture is in the experimental stage.

In spite of vegetative propagation, mutations arise in the form of bud sports. The fruit may differ radically from the others on a grafted tree-perhaps larger and superior-and the foliage on the branch may be quite unlike that on other branches.

Dwarfing

Reduction in the size of mango trees would be a most desirable goal for the commercial and private planter. It would greatly assist harvesting and also would make it possible for the homeowner to maintain trees of different fruiting seasons in limited space.

In India, double-grafting has been found to dwarf mango trees and induce early fruiting. Naturally dwarf hybrids such as ‘Julie’ have been developed. The polyembryonic Indian cultivars, ‘Olour’ and ‘Vellai Colamban’, when used as rootstocks, have a dwarfing effect; so has the polyembryonic ‘Sabre’ in experiments in Israel and South Africa.

In Peru, the polyembryonic ‘Manzo de Ica’, is used as rootstock; in Colombia, ‘Hilaza’ and ‘Puerco’. ‘Kaew’ is utilized in Thailand.

Culture

About 6 weeks before transplanting either a seedling or a grafted tree, the taproot should be cut back to about 12 in (30 cm). This encourages feeder-root development in the field. For a week before setting out, the plants should be exposed to full morning sun.

Inasmuch as mango trees vary in lateral dimensions, spacing depends on the habit of the cultivar and the type of soil, and may vary from 34 to 60 ft (10.5-18 m) between trees. Closer planting will ultimately reduce the crop. A spacing of 34 x 34 ft (10.5 x l0.5 m) allows 35 trees per acre (86 per ha); 50 x 50 ft (15.2 x l5.2 m) allows only 18 trees per acre (44.5 per ha). In Florida’s limestone, one commercial grower maintains 100 trees per acre (247 per ha), controlling size by hedging and topping.

The young trees should be placed in prepared and enriched holes at least 2 ft (60 cm) deep and wide, and 3/4 of the top should be cut off. In commercial groves in southern Florida, the trees are set at the intersection of cross trenches mechanically cut through the limestone.

Mangos require high nitrogen fertilization in the early years but after they begin to bear, the fertilizer should be higher in phosphate and potash. A 5-8-10 fertilizer mix is recommended and applied 2 or 3, or possibly even 4, times a year at the rate of 1 lb (454 g) per year of age at each dressing, Fertilizer formulas will vary with the type of soil. In sandy acid soils, excess nitrogen contributes to “soft nose” breakdown of the fruits. This can be counteracted by adding calcium. On organic soils (muck and peat), nitrogen may be omitted entirely. In India, fertilizer is applied at an increasing rate until the tree is rather old, and then it is discontinued. Ground fertilizers are supplemented by foliar nutrients including zinc, manganese and copper. Iron deficiency is corrected by small applications of chelated iron.

Indian growers generally irrigate the trees only the first 3 or 4 years while the taproot is developing and before it has reached the water table. However, in commercial plantations, irrigation of bearing trees is withheld only for the 2 or 3 months prior to flowering. When the blooms appear, the tree is given a heavy watering and this is repeated monthly until the rains begin. In Florida groves, irrigation is by means of overhead sprinklers which also provide frost protection when needed.

Usually no pruning is done until the 4th year, and then only to improve the form and this is done right after the fruiting season. If topping is practiced, the trees are cut at 14 ft (4.25 m) to facilitate both spraying and harvesting. Grafted mangos may set fruit within a year or two from planting. The trees are then too weak to bear a full crop and the fruits should be thinned or completely removed.

Harvesting

Mangos normally reach maturity in 4 to 5 months from flowering. Fruits of “smudged” trees ripen several months before those of untreated trees. Experts in the Philippines have demonstrated that ‘Carabao’ mangos sprayed with ethephon (200 ppm) 54 days after full bloom can be harvested 2 weeks later at recommended minimum maturity. The fruits will be larger and heavier even though harvested 2 weeks before untreated fruits. If sprayed at 68 days after full bloom and harvested 2 weeks after spraying, there will be an improvement in quality in regard to soluble solids and titratable acidity.

When the mango is full-grown and ready for picking, the stem will snap easily with a slight pull. If a strong pull is necessary, the fruit is still somewhat immature and should not be harvested. In the more or less red types of mangos, an additional indication of maturity is the development of a purplish-red blush at the base of the fruit. A long-poled picking bag which holds no more than 4 fruits is commonly used by pickers. Falling causes bruising and later spoiling. When low fruits are harvested with clippers, it is desirable to leave a 4-inch (10 cm) stem to avoid the spurt of milky/resinous sap that exudes if the stem is initially cut close. Before packing, the stem is cut off 1/4 in (6 mm) from the base of the fruit. In Queensland, after final clipping of the stem, the fruits are placed stem-end-down to drain.

In a sophisticated Florida operation, harvested fruits are put into tubs of water on trucks in order to wash off the sap that exudes from the stem end. At the packing house, the fruits are transferred from the tubs to bins, graded and sized and packed in cartons (“lugs”) of 8 to 20 each depending on size. The cartons are made mechanically at the packing house and hold 14 lbs (6.35 kg) of fruit. The filled cartons are stacked on pallets and fork-lifted into refrigerated trucks with temperature set at no less than 55° F (12.78° C) for transport to distribution centers in major cities throughout the USA and Canada.

Yield

The yield varies with the cultivar and the age of the tree. At 10 to 20 years, a good annual crop may be 200 to 300 fruits per tree. At twice that age and over, the crop will be doubled. In Java,, old trees have been known to bear 1,000 to 1,500 fruits in a season. Some cultivars in India bear 800 to 3,000 fruits in “on” years and, with good cultural attention, yields of 5,000 fruits have been reported. There is a famous mango, ‘Pane Ka Aam’ of Maharashtra and Khamgaon, India, with “paper-thin” skin and fiberless flesh. One of the oldest of these trees, well over 100 years of age, bears heavily 5 years out of 10 with 2 years of low yield. Average annual yield is 6,500 fruits; the highest record is 29,000.

Reported annual yields for 6 cultivars in Puerto Rico are:

‘Lippens’ 67,079 lbs per acre
‘Keitt’ 45,608 lbs per acre
‘Earlygold’ 42,310 lbs per acre
‘Parvin’ 38,369 lbs per acre
‘Haden’ 32,732 lbs per acre
‘Palmer’ 28,868 lbs per acre

The number of lbs per acre is roughly the equivalent of kg per hectare.

Average mango yield in Florida is said to be about 30,000 lbs/acre. One leading commercial grower has reported his annual crop as 22,000 to 27,500 lbs/acre. One grower who has hedged and topped trees close-planted at the rate of 100 per acre (41/ha) averages 14,000 to 19.000 lbs/acre.

Ripening

In India, mangos are picked quite green to avoid bird damage and the dealers layer them with rice straw in ventilated storage rooms over a period of one week. Quality is improved by controlled temperatures between 60° and 70° F (15° -21° C). In ripening trials in Puerto Rico, the ‘Edward’ mango was harvested while deep-green, dipped in hot water at 124° F (51° C) to control anthracnose, sorted as to size, then stored for 15 days at 70° F (21° C) with relative humidity of 85% to 90%. Those picked when more than 3 in (7.5 cm) in diameter ripened satisfactorily and were of excellent quality.

Ethylene treatment causes green mangos to develop full color in 7 to 10 days depending on the degree of maturity, whereas untreated fruits require 10 to 15 days. One of the advantages is that there can be fewer pickings and the fruit color after treatment is more uniform. Therefore, ethylene treatment is a common practice in Israel for ripening fruits for the local market. Some growers in Florida depend on ethylene treatment. Generally, 24 hours of exposure is sufficient if the fruits are picked at the proper stage. It has been determined that mangos have been picked prematurely if they require more than 48 hours of ethylene treatment and are not fit for market.

Keeping Quality and Storage

Washing the fruits immediately after harvest is essential, as the sap which leaks from the stem bums the skin of the fruit making black lesions which lead to rotting.

Some cultivars, especially ‘Bangalora’, ‘Alphonso’, and ‘Neelum’ in India, have much better keeping quality than others. In Bombay, ‘Alphonso’ has kept well for 4 weeks at 52° F (11.11° C); 6 to 7 weeks at 45° F (7.22° C). Storage at lower temperatures is detrimental inasmuch as mangos are very susceptible to chilling injury. Any temperature below 55.4° F (13° C) is damaging to ‘Kent’. In Florida, this is regarded as the optimum for 2 to 3 weeks storage. The best ripening temperatures are 70° to 75° F (21.11°-23.89° C).

Experiments in Florida have demonstrated that ‘Irwin’, ‘Tommy Atkins’ and ‘Kent’ mangos, held for 3 weeks at storage temperature of 55.4° F (13° C), 98% to 100% relative humidity and atmospheric pressure of 76 or 152 mmHg, ripened thereafter with less decay at 69.8° F (21° C) under normal atmospheric pressure, as compared with fruits stored at the same temperature with normal atmospheric pressure. Those stored at 152 mmHg took 3 to 5 days longer to ripen than those stored at 76 mmHg. Decay rates were 20% for ‘Tommy Atkins’ and 40% for ‘Irwin’. Spoilage from anthracnose has been reduced by immersion for 15 min in water at 125° F (51.67° C) or for 5 min at 132° F (55.56° C). Dipping in 500 ppm maleic hydrazide for 1 min and storing at 89.6° F (32° C) also retards decay but not loss of moisture. In South Africa, mangos are submerged immediately after picking in a suspension of benomyl for 5 min at 131° F (55° C) to control soft brown rot.

In Australia, mature-green ‘Kensington Pride’ mangos have been dipped in a 4% solution of calcium chloride under reduced pressure (250 mm Hg) and then stored in containers at 77° F (25° C) in ethylene-free atmosphere. Ripening was retarded by a week; that is, the treated fruits ripened in 20 to 22 days whereas controls ripened in 12 to 14 days. Eating quality was equal except that the calcium-treated fruits were found slightly higher in ascorbic acid.

Wrapping fruits individually in heat-shrinkable plastic film has not retarded decay in storage. The only benefit has been 3% less weight loss. Coating with paraffin wax or fungicidal wax and storing at 68° to 89.6° F (20° -32° C) delays ripening 1 to 2 weeks and prevents shriveling but interferes with full development of color.

Gamma irradiation (30 Krad) causes ripening delay of 7 days in mangos stored at room temperature. The irradiated fruits ripen normally and show no adverse effect on quality. Irradiation has not yet been approved for this purpose.

In India, large quantities of mangos are transported to distant markets by rail. To avoid excessive heat buildup and consequent spoilage, the fruits, padded with paper shavings, are packed in ventilated wooden crates and loaded into ventilated wooden boxcars. Relative humidity varies from 24% to 85% and temperature from 88° to 115° F (31.6°-46.6° C). These improved conditions have proved superior to the conventional packing of the fruits in Phoenix-palm-midrib or bamboo, or the newer pigeonpea-stem, baskets padded with rice straw and mango leaves and transported in steel boxcars, which has resulted in 20% to 30% losses from shriveling, unshapeliness and spoilage.

Green seedling mangos, harvested in India for commercial preparation of chutneys and pickles as well as for table use, are stored for as long as 40 days at 42° to 45° F (5.56°-7.22° C) with relative humidity of 85% to 99%. Some of these may be diverted for table use after a 2-week ripening period at 62° to 65° F (16.67° -18.13° C).

Pests and Diseases

The fruit flies, Dacus ferrugineus and D. zonatus, attack the mango in India; D. tryoni (now Strumeta tryoni) in Queensland, and D. dorsalis in the Philippines; Pardalaspis cosyra in Kenya; and the fruit fly is the greatest enemy of the mango in Central America. Because of the presence of the Caribbean fruit fly, Anastrepha suspensa, in Florida, all Florida mangos for interstate shipment or for export must be fumigated or immersed in hot water at 115° F (46.11° C) for 65 minutes.

In India, South Africa and Hawaii, mango seed weevils, Sternochetus (Cryptorhynchus) mangiferae and S. gravis, are major pests, undetectable until the larvae tunnel their way out. The leading predators of the tree in India are jassid hoppers (Idiocerus spp.) variously attacking trunk and branches or foliage and flowers, and causing shedding of young fruits. The honeydew they excrete on leaves and flowers gives rise to sooty mold.

The mango-leaf webber, or “tent caterpillar”, Orthaga euadrusalis, has become a major problem in North India, especially in old, crowded orchards where there is excessive shade. Around Lucknow, ‘Dashehari’ is heavily infested by this pest; ‘Samarbehist’ (‘Chausa’) less. In South Africa, 11 species of scales have been recorded on the fruits. Coccus mangiferae and C. acuminatus are the most common scale insects giving rise to the sooty mold that grows on the honeydew excreted by the pests. In some areas, there are occasional outbreaks of the scales, Pulvinaria psidii, P. polygonata, Aulacaspis cinnamoni, A. tubercularis, Aspidiotus destructor and Leucaspis indica. In Florida, pyriform scale, Protopulvinaria Pyrformis, and Florida wax scale, Ceroplastes floridensis, are common, and the lesser snow scale, Pinnaspis strachani, infests the trunks of small trees and lower branches of large trees. Heavy attacks may result in cracking of the bark and oozing of sap.

The citrus thrips, Scirtothrips aurantii, blemishes the fruit in some mango-growing areas. The red-banded thrips, Selenothrips rubrocinctus, at times heavily infests mango foliage in Florida, killing young leaves and causing shedding of mature leaves. Mealybugs, Phenacoccus citri and P. mangiferae, and Drosicha stebbingi and D. mangiferae may infest young leaves, shoots and fruits. The mango stem borer, Batocera rufomaculata invades the trunk. Leaves and shoots are preyed on by the caterpillars of Parasa lepida, Chlumetia transversa and Orthaga exvinacea. Mites feed on mango leaves, flowers and young fruits. In Florida, the most common is the avocado red mite, Paratetranychus yothersii.

Mistletoe (Loranthus and Viscum spp.) parasitizes and kills mango branches in India and tropical America. Dr. B. Reddy, Regional Plant Production and Protection Officer, FAO, Bangkok, compiled an extensive roster of insects, mites, nematodes, other pests, fungi, bacteria and phanerogamic parasites in Southeast Asia and the Pacific Region (1975).

One of the most serious diseases of the mango is powdery mildew (Oidium mangiferae), which is common in most growing areas of India, occurs mostly in March and April in Florida. The fungus affects the flowers and causes young fruits to dehydrate and fall, and 20% of the crop may be lost. It is controllable by regular spraying. In humid climates, anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Glomerella cingulata) affects flowers, leaves, twigs, fruits, both young and mature. The latter show black spots externally and the corresponding flesh area is affected. Control measures must be taken in advance of flowering and regularly during dry spells. In Florida, mango growers apply up to 20 sprayings up to the cut-off point before harvesting. The black spots are similar to those produced by AIternaria sp. often associated with anthracnose in cold storage in India. Inside the fruits attacked by AIternaria there are corresponding areas of hard, corky, spongy lesions. Inasmuch as the fungus enters the stem-end of the fruit, it is combatted by applying Fungicopper paste in linseed oil to the cut stem and also by sterilizing the storage compartment with Formalin 1:20. A pre-harvest dry stem-end rot was first noticed on ‘Tommy Atkins’ in Mexico in 1973, and it has spread to all Mexican plantings of this cultivar causing losses of 10-80% especially in wet weather. Fusarium, Alternaria and Cladosporium spp. were prominent among associated fungi.

Malformation of inflorescence and vegetative buds is attributed to the combined action of Fusarium moniliforme and any of the mites, Aceria mangifera, Eriophyes sp., Tyrophagus castellanii, or Typhlodromus asiaticus. This grave problem occurs in Pakistan, India, South Africa and Egypt, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Mexico, Brazil and Venezuela, but not as yet in the Philippines. It is on the increase in India. Removing and burning the inflorescence has been the only remedy, but it has been found that malformation can be reduced by a single spray of NAA (200 mg in 50 ml alcohol with water added to make 1 liter) in October, and deblooming in early January.

There are 14 types of mango galls in India, 12 occurring on the leaves. The most serious is the axillary bud gall caused by Apsylla cistellata of the family Psyllidae.

In Florida, leaf spot is caused by Pestalotia mangiferae, Phyllosticta mortoni, and Septoria sp.; algal leaf spot, or green scurf by Cephaleuros virescens. In 1983, a new disease, crusty leaf spot, caused by the fungus, Zimmermaniella trispora, was reported as common on neglected mango trees in Malaya. Twig dieback and dieback are from infection by Phomopsis sp., Physalospora abdita, and P. rhodina. Wilt is caused by Verticillium alboatrum; brown felt by Septobasidium pilosum and S. pseudopedicellatum; wood rot, by Polyporus sanguineus; and scab by Elsinoe mangiferae (Sphaceloma mangiferae). Cercospora mangiferae attacks the fruits in the Congo.

A number of organisms in India cause white sap, heart rot, gray blight, leaf blight, white pocket rot, white spongy rot, sap rot, black bark and red rust. In South Africa, Asbergillus attacks young shoots and fruit rot is caused by A. niger. Gloeosporium mangiferae causes black spotting of fruits. Erwinia mangiferae and Pseudomonas mangiferaeindicae are sources of bacterial black spot in South Africa and Queensland. Bacterium carotovorus is a source of soft rot. Stem-end rot is a major problem in India and Puerto Rico from infection by Physalospora rhodina (Diplodia natalensis). Soft brown rot develops during prolonged cold storage in South Africa.

Leaf tip burn may be a sign of excess chlorides. Manganese deficiency is indicated by paleness and limpness of foliage followed by yellowing, with distinct green veins and midrib, fine brown spots and browning of leaf tips. Inadequate zinc is evident in less noticeable paleness of foliage, distortion of new shoots, small leaves, necrosis, and stunting of the tree and its roots. In boron deficiency, there is reduced size and distortion of new leaves and browning of the midrib. Copper deficiency is seen in paleness of foliage and severe tip-bum with gray-brown patches on old leaves; abnormally large leaves; also die-back of terminal shoots; sometimes gummosis of twigs and branches. Magnesium is needed when young trees are stunted and pale, new leaves have yellow-white areas between the main veins and prominent yellow specks on both sides of the midrib. There may also be browning of the leaf tips and margins. Lack of iron produces chlorosis in young trees.

Fig. 61: Low-fiber mangoes are easily prepared for the table by first cutting off the “cheeks” which can then be served for eating by spooning the flesh from the “shell”.

Fig. 64: A low-fiber, green-skinned mango on the market in Merida, Yucatan, is mounted on a lollipop stick. The fruit may be peeled and the flesh deeply cut to resemble the petals of a flower.

Food Uses

Mangos should always be washed to remove any sap residue, before handling. Some seedling mangos are so fibrous that they cannot be sliced; instead, they are massaged, the stem-end is cut off, and the juice squeezed from the fruit into the mouth. Non-fibrous mangos may be cut in half to the stone, the two halves twisted in opposite directions to free the stone which is then removed, and the halves served for eating as appetizers or dessert. Or the two “cheeks” may be cut off, following the contour of the stone, for similar use; then the remaining side “fingers” of flesh are cut off for use in fruit cups, etc.

Most people enjoy eating the residual flesh from the seed and this is done most neatly by piercing the stem-end of the seed with the long central tine of a mango fork, commonly sold in Mexico, and holding the seed upright like a lollypop. Small mangos can be peeled and mounted on the fork and eaten in the same manner. If the fruit is slightly fibrous especially near the stone, it is best to peel and slice the flesh and serve it as dessert, in fruit salad, on dry cereal, or in gelatin or custards, or on ice cream. The ripe flesh may be spiced and preserved in jars. Surplus ripe mangos are peeled, sliced and canned in sirup, or made into jam, marmalade, jelly or nectar. The extracted pulpy juice of fibrous types is used for making mango halva and mango leather. Sometimes corn flour and tamarind seed jellose are mixed in. Mango juice may be spray-dried and powdered and used in infant and invalid foods, or reconstituted and drunk as a beverage. The dried juice, blended with wheat flour has been made into “cereal” flakes, A dehydrated mango custard powder has also been developed in India, especially for use in baby foods.

Ripe mangos may be frozen whole or peeled, sliced and packed in sugar (1 part sugar to 10 parts mango by weight) and quick-frozen in moisture-proof containers. The diced flesh of ripe mangos, bathed in sweetened or unsweetened lime juice, to prevent discoloration, can be quick-frozen, as can sweetened ripe or green mango puree. Immature mangos are often blown down by spring winds. Half-ripe or green mangos are peeled and sliced as filling for pie, used for jelly, or made into sauce which, with added milk and egg whites, can be converted into mango sherbet. Green mangos are peeled, sliced, parboiled, then combined with sugar, salt, various spices and cooked, sometimes with raisins or other fruits, to make chutney; or they may be salted, sun-dried and kept for use in chutney and pickles. Thin slices, seasoned with turmeric, are dried, and sometimes powdered, and used to impart an acid flavor to chutneys, vegetables and soup. Green or ripe mangos may be used to make relish.
Fig. 62: The long center tine of the mango fork is designed for piercing the base of the center section and right through the seed. With the strip of peel removed, the most flavorful flesh around the seed can be enjoyed like a lollipop.

In Thailand, green-skinned mangos of a class called “keo”, with sweet, nearly fiberless flesh and very commonly grown and inexpensive on the market, are soaked whole for 15 days in salted water before peeling, slicing and serving with sugar.

Processing of mangos for export is of great importance in Hawaii in view of the restrictions on exporting the fresh fruits. Hawaiian technologists have developed methods for steam- and lye-peeling, also devices for removing peel from unpeeled fruits in the preparation of nectar. Choice of suitable cultivars is an essential factor in processing mangos for different purposes.

The Food Research Institute of the Canada Department of Agriculture has developed methods of preserving ripe or green mango slices by osmotic dehydration,

The fresh kernel of the mango seed (stone) constitutes 13% of the weight of the fruit, 55% to 65% of the weight of the stone. The kernel is a major by-product of the mango-processing industry. In times of food scarcity in India, the kernels are roasted or boiled and eaten. After soaking to dispel the astringency (tannins), the kernels are dried and ground to flour which is mixed with wheat or rice flour to make bread and it is also used in puddings.

The fat extracted from the kernel is white, solid like cocoa butter and tallow, edible, and has been proposed as a substitute for cocoa butter in chocolate.

The peel constitutes 20% to 25% of the total weight of the fruit. Researchers in India have shown that the peel can be utilized as a source of pectin. Average yield on a dry-weight basis is 13%.

Immature mango leaves are cooked and eaten in Indonesia and the Philippines.

Food Value Per 100 g of Ripe Mango Flesh*

Fruit
Calories 62.1-63.7
Moisture 78.9-82.8 g
Protein 0.36-0.40 g
Fat 0.30-0.53 g
Carbohydrates 16.20-17.18 g
Fiber 0.85-1.06 g
Ash 0.34-0.52 g
Calcium 6.1-12.8 mg
Phosphorus 5.5-17.9 mg
Iron 0.20-0.63 mg
Vitamin A (carotene) 0.135-1.872 mg
Thiamine 0.020-0.073 mg
Riboflavin 0.025-0.068 mg
Niacin 0.025-0.707 mg
Ascorbic Acid 7.8-172.0 mg
Tryptophan 3-6 mg
Methionine 4 mg
Lysine 32-37 mg

*Minimum and maximum levels of food constituents derived from various analyses made in Cuba, Central America, Africa and India.

Puerto Rican analyses of 30 cultivars showed b-carotene as ranging from a low of 4,171 I.U./100 g in ‘Stringless Peach’ to a high of 7,900 I.U. in ‘Carrie’. Ascorbic acid ranged from 3.43 mg/100 g in ‘Keitt’ to 62.96 in ‘Julie’.

Seed Kernel**
Moisture 10.55-11.35%
Protein 4.76-8.5%
Fat 6-15%
Starch 40-72%
Sugar 1.07%
Fiber 1.17-2.6%
Ash 1.72-3.66%
Silica 0.41%
Iron 0.03%
Calcium 0.11-0.23%
Magnesium 0.34%
Phosphorus 0.21-0.66%
Sodium 0.28%
Potassium 1.31%
Sulfur 0.23%
Carbonate 0.09%

**According to analyses made in India and Cuba.

Indian analyses of the mango kernel reveal the amino acids–alanine, arginine, aspartic acid, cystine, glutamic acid, glycine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, proline, serine, threonine, tyrosine, valine, at levels lower than in wheat and gluten. Tannin content may be 0.12-0.18% or much higher in certain cultivars.

Kernel Flour*
Protein 5.56%
Fat 16.17%
Carbohydrates 69.2%
Ash (minerals) 0.35%

*It is said to be equal to rice in food value, if tannin-free.

Kernel Fat
Fully saturated glycerides 14.2%
Mono-oleoglycerides 24.2%
Di-oleoglycerides 60.8%
Tri-unsaturated glycerides 0.8%
Fatty Acids:
Mysristic 0.69%
Palmitic 4.4-8.83%
Stearic 33.96-47.8%
Arachidic 2.7-6.74%
Oleic 38.2-49.78%
Linoleic 4.4-5.4%
Linolenic 0.5%

Leaves (immature)
Moisture 78.2%
Protein 3.0%
Fat 0.4%
Carbohydrates 16.5%
Fiber 1.6%
Ash 1.9%
Calcium 29 mg/100 g
Phosphorus 72 mg
Iron 6.2 mg
Vitamin A (carotene) ß 1,490 I.U.
Thiamine 0.04 mg
Riboflavin 0.06 mg
Niacin 2.2 mg
Ascorbic Acid** 53 mg/100g

**According to various analyses made in India.

Toxicity

The sap which exudes from the stalk close to the base of the fruit is somewhat milky at first, also yellowish-resinous. It becomes pale-yellow and translucent when dried. It contains mangiferen, resinous acid, mangiferic acid, and the resinol, mangiferol. It, like the sap of the trunk and branches and the skin of the unripe fruit, is a potent skin irritant, and capable of blistering the skin of the normal individual. As with poison ivy, there is typically a delayed reaction. Hypersensitive persons may react with considerable swelling of the eyelids, the face, and other parts of the body. They may not be able to handle, peel, or eat mangos or any food containing mango flesh or juice. A good precaution is to use one knife to peel the mango, and a clean knife to slice the flesh to avoid contaminating the flesh with any of the resin in the peel.

The leaves contain the glucoside, mangiferine. In India, cows were formerly fed mango leaves to obtain from their urine euxanthic acid which is rich yellow and has been used as a dye. Since continuous intake of the leaves may be fatal, the practice has been outlawed.

When mango trees are in bloom, it is not uncommon for people to suffer itching around the eyes, facial swelling and respiratory difficulty, even though there is no airborne pollen. The few pollen grains are large and they tend to adhere to each other even in dry weather. The stigma is small and not designed to catch windborne pollen. The irritant is probably the vaporized essential oil of the flowers which contains the sesquiterpene alcohol, mangiferol, and the ketone, mangiferone.

Mango wood should never be used in fireplaces or for cooking fuel, as its smoke is highly irritant.

Other Uses

Seed kernels: After soaking and drying to 10% moisture content, the kernels are fed to poultry and cattle. Without the removal of tannins, the feeding value is low. Cuban scientists declare that the mineral levels are so low mineral supplementation is needed if the kernel is used for poultry feed, for which purpose it is recommended mainly because it has little crude fiber.

Seed fat: Having high stearic acid content, the fat is desirable for soap-making. The seed residue after fat extraction is usable for cattle feed and soil enrichment.

A mango stone decorticator has been designed and successfully operated by the Agricultural Engineering Department of Pantnagar University, India.

Wood: The wood is kiln-dried or seasoned in saltwater. It is gray or greenish-brown, coarse-textured, medium-strong, hard, durable in water but not in the ground; easy to work and finishes well. In India, after preservative treatment, it is used for rafters and joists, window frames, agricultural implements, boats, plywood, shoe heels and boxes, including crates for shipping tins of cashew kernels. It makes excellent charcoal.

Bark: The bark possesses 16% to 20% tannin and has been employed for tanning hides. It yields a yellow dye, or, with turmeric and lime, a bright rose-pink.

Gum: A somewhat resinous, red-brown gum from the trunk is used for mending crockery in tropical Africa. In India, it is sold as a substitute for gum arabic.

Medicinal Uses: Dried mango flowers, containing 15% tannin, serve as astringents in cases of diarrhea, chronic dysentery, catarrh of the bladder and chronic urethritis resulting from gonorrhea. The bark contains mangiferine and is astringent and employed against rheumatism and diphtheria in India. The resinous gum from the trunk is applied on cracks in the skin of the feet and on scabies, and is believed helpful in cases of syphilis.

Mango kernel decoction and powder (not tannin-free) are used as vermifuges and as astringents in diarrhea, hemorrhages and bleeding hemorrhoids. The fat is administered in cases of stomatitis. Extracts of unripe fruits and of bark, stems and leaves have shown antibiotic activity. In some of the islands of the Caribbean, the leaf decoction is taken as a remedy for diarrhea, fever, chest complaints, diabetes, hypertension and other ills. A combined decoction of mango and other leaves is taken after childbirth.

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Related Species
Of approximately 40 other species of Mangifera, a few are cultivated for their fruits and several have been employed as rootstocks for the mango in Malaya.

M. sylvatica Roxb., is a large tree to 150 ft (45 m) growing wild in the eastern Himalayas, Nepal and the Andaman Islands, from 980 to 4,200 ft (300-1,300 m). The elliptic fruit, 3 1/4 to 4 in (8-10 cm) long, has yellow skin and fiberless, though rather thin, flesh. It is mostly utilized while still unripe for pickles and other preserves. The tree is valued mainly for its timber which is largely sapwood, light in weight and easily worked but medium-hard and strong.

M. foetida Lour., the horse mango, is a handsome, well-formed tree, 60 to 80 ft (18-24 m) tall with very stiff leaves and showy particles of pink-red, odorless flowers. The fruit is oblong, 3 to 5 1/2 in (7.5-16 cm) long, plump, with yellowish- or grayish-green skin when ripe. The flesh is variable, in some types orange, acid, strongly turpentine-scented; in others, pale-yellow, sweet in flavor and mildly aromatic. All types are fibrous and the stone has much fiber. Sweet types are eaten raw when ripe; others are used for pickles, chutneys and in curries. The sap of the tree and the immature fruit is highly irritating.

M. caesia Jack, ranging from 65 to 150 ft (20-45 m) at low altitudes in Malaysia and the Philippines, is frequently cultivated in Indonesia. The flowers are blue or lavender. Strongly and, to some people, unpleasantly aromatic, the fruit is oval to pear-shaped, 4 1/4 to 6 in (11-15 cm) long, with thin, pale-green or light-brown, scurfy skin which clings to the white or pale-yellow, juicy, fibrous flesh. Quality is highly variable; some types being subacid to sweet and agreeable and these are commonly eaten in Malaya. The seed is large and pink, enclosed in matted fibers; edible; monoembryonic. Young leaves are eaten raw. The sap of the tree and immature fruits is exceedingly irritant.

M. odorata Griff. is a medium to large tree, 60 to 80 ft (15-24 m) high, better suited than the mango to humid regions and much cultivated from Malaya to the Philippines where it is more familiar than the mango in eastern Mindanao. The flowers are whitish to yellowish and very fragrant. The fruit is round-oblique, somewhat oblate; to 5 in (12.5 cm) long, plump, with green or yellow-green, thick, tough skin. When ripe the flesh is pale-orange or yellowish, fibrous and resinous but juicy and sweet, though most types are distinctly turpentine -flavored. Nevertheless, all types are popular for curries and pickles. The stone is large with many coarse fibers. The sap of this tree is said to be fairly mild, but the milky sap of the immature fruit extremely acrid.

In addition to the above, Malayan villagers occasionally cultivate some lesser-known species: M. longipetiolata King, M. maingayi Hook f., M. kemanga Blume, and M. pentandra Hook f.

The gandaria, Plate XXIX, Bouea gandaria Blume (syn. B. macrophylla Griff.), is also called kundangan, kundang, setar, star and rumia in Malaya; gandareed in Java; ma-prang in Thailand. The tree, usually to 30 ft (9 m), sometimes to 60 ft (18 m), is short-trunked with resinous sap, drooping branches and evergreen, opposite, resinous, leathery, downward-pointing leaves 4 to 12 in (10-30 cm) long, 2 to 4 1/2 in (5-11.25 cm) wide. They are purple-red and silky when they first appear. Small, greenish flowers are borne in pendent panicles to 5 in (12.5 cm) in length. The fruit, like a miniature mango, is oval, round or oblong-ovoid, 1 1/2 to 2 1/2 in (4-6.25 cm) long, with thin, smooth, brittle, edible skin, yellow or apricot-colored when ripe. The yellow or orange pulp is juicy, varies from acid to sweet, and adheres to the leathery, whiskered stone. There is great variation in the fruits of seedling trees, especially in the degree of “turpentine” odor. The tree is native to Malaya and Sumatra; is frequently cultivated, either from seed or air-layers, in its natural range and also rather widely through Malaysia and the fruits are sold in markets. They are made into jam and chutney. When still immature, they are pickled in brine and used in curries. In Indonesia, the young leaves are marketed and eaten raw with rice. Budwood of a cultivar named ‘Wan’, meaning “sweet”, was obtained by William F. Whitman from an orchard near Bangkok in 1967. His resulting grafted tree, in a protected location in South Florida, fruited in 1974. Earlier introductions (1935, 1936 and 1938) by the Agricultural Research and Education Center in Homestead failed to survive.

A lesser species, B. oppositifolia Adelb. (syn. B. microphylla Griff.), is called plum mango, rembunia, gemis, or rumia in Malaya; ma-pring in Thailand. The tree is similar but deciduous, smaller in all its parts, and the fruit is orange or yellow and only 1 in (2.5 cm) long, acid and usually cooked when half-ripe. This species is abundant wild in lowland forests of Malaya and much cultivated as a shade tree. The wood is hard and very heavy, sinks in water, and is used for houseposts.

Food Value

Fruits from a 20-year-old gandaria tree (Bouea gandaria Blume) in the Lancetilla Experimental Garden, Tela, Honduras, were analyzed in 1950 and the following values were reported:

Food Value Per 100 g of Edible Portion

Moisture 85.2 g
Protein 0.112 g
Fat 0.04g
Fiber 0.6 g
Ash 0.23 g
Calcium 6.0 mg
Phosphorus 10.8 mg
Iron 0.31 mg
Carotene 0.043 mg
Thiamine 0.031 mg
Riboflavin 0.025 mg
Niacin 0.286 mg
Ascorbic Acid 75.0 mg

Prepared Jan., 2002

General Production Information

The mango acreage for 2000 was reported to be 1,675 acres, which represents approximately 168,000 trees. Mango acreage has been constant at the 1,700 to 1,800 acre range since Hurricane Andrew struck in fall of 1992. Prior to this event, production in the state was near 3,000 acres (1).
In the last year for which production statistics are available (1997), a reported mango crop of 100,000 bushels (5.5 million pounds) was harvested. At a price of $14.50 per bushel, this crop was worth $1.45 million. This figure represented a 16 percent decrease in value ($1.72 million) from the 1995 crop (2).
Since Hurricane Andrew, only 325 acres have been replanted, and no mango trees were reportedly planted in 2000 (1).
Over eighty percent of mango production occurs in Miami-Dade County. The remaining acreage is located in counties in the vicinity of Miami-Dade County (1).
No other state reported the production of mangos. Consequently, Florida is the main United States producer of this fruit (2).
As of 1996, mango comprised about 11 percent of the tropical fruit acreage in Miami-Dade County, and was third behind avocado and lime in acreage and value (3).
An estimated 80 percent of mango sales ($1.38 million) were made outside of Miami-Dade county in 1995 (3).
Production Regions:
Mango (Mangifera indica) is grown primarily in south Florida. In 2000, 83 percent of Florida’s mango acreage was located in Miami-Dade County. The remainder of mango acreage is located in Lee, Palm Beach, and other counties with the appropriate climate (1,4).

Production Practices:
The mango tree is classified as an evergreen and is in the Anacardiaceae family. It is a plant that is indigenous to India and Southeast Asia and was first introduced into Florida in 1833. The tree can grow to a height of 100 feet but it is generally maintained at a height of 20 feet for ease of harvest and maintenance. Leaves are alternate, lanceolate shaped, and six to 16 inches in length. The fruit vary in shape (kidney, round, oblong, oval) and weight ranges from a few ounces to five pounds. Although the fruit will ripen on the tree, it is usually picked green for shipment. The crop is considered mature when the shoulder of the fruit broadens (fills out) and some fruits on the tree have begun to change color from green to yellow. Prior to this color change, the fruit is considered mature when the flesh near the seed changes color from white to yellow (4).

Mango should be planted in soil with adequate drainage, although some varieties withstand flooding for brief periods. Prolonged flooding leads to leaf wilt/desiccation, stem dieback, reduced growth, and tree death. Since mango is adapted to lowland subtropical and tropical climates, it does have a high water requirement. During seedling establishment and dry periods, irrigation systems should be able to provide supplemental irrigation (4).

Cultivars commonly used in Florida mango production are “Tommy Atkins” and “Keitt” as well as “Palmer”, “Van Dyke”, and “Kent.” Rootstocks used include “Turpentine” and “Number 11.” These rootstocks are tolerant of high pH and seedlings are vigorous and relatively uniform. Mango cultivars are classified as monoembryonic (Indian type) and polyembryonic (Indochinese type). The former are those cultivated in Florida while the latter serve as rootstock. Consequently, most commercial mango is propagated vegetatively. Veneer-grafting and chip-budding techniques are most often used with greatest success in warm months. Grafted trees produce marketable fruit within three to five years (4,5).

Mango trees are planted from 10 to 30 feet apart within rows and from 20 to 30 feet between rows. Consequently, a mature stand would have about 100 trees per acre. Formative pruning of young trees is not necessary. Commercial producers periodically cut back growth to allow better penetration of sprays and ease of picking. Pruning is performed mechanically after fruit harvest, which is generally done two to four times per season (4).

The mango inflorescence may possess 1,000 to 4,000 flowers, however, less than one fruit per panicle is set by most commercial mango varieties. Despite this, yields of 165 to 440 pounds of fruit per tree may be produced. Mango blooms from December to April, depending on variety, and the fruit takes 100 to 150 days to mature. Consequently, the greatest production in Florida is from May through September. Pollination is by insects such as thrips, flies, and bees. A dry season prior to and during the blooming period is considered optimal for good fruit production (4).

Mango trees are picked by hand or by using a long picking pole which has at its distal end a canvas or nylon bag attached to a metal ring with a cutting blade. Ladders and hydraulic lifts are also used to enable pickers to reach fruit high in the tree canopy. The best temperatures for ripening mangos are 70-75F (21-24C). Fruit ripened at higher temperatures often shrivels and develops off-flavors. Fruit can be held at temperatures no colder than 55F (13C) to delay ripening (4).

Computer-aided pest management of tropical fruit has been implemented by the University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. The TFRUIT•Xpert diagnostic program has been developed to assist growers and others in determining diseases, insect pest problems and physiological disorders (http://it.ifas.ufl.edu/software/tropicalfruits-cd.html).

Insect Pests

The principal pests on mango in Florida are mites (avocado red mite, mango spider mite, mango bud mite), scales (dictyospermum scale, Florida red scale, Florida wax scale, pyriform scale, oleander scale, mango scale, plumose scale), thrips (redbanded, flower), and ambrosia beetles. Minor and occasional pests include aphids, mealybugs, and whiteflies/blackflies (4,6).

MITES (Oligonychus yothersi, Oligonychus mangiferus, Aceria mangiferae)

Spider mites of the genus Oligonychus commonly infest mangos in Florida. Feeding is first confined to the upper leaf surface, along the midrib, and then along secondary veins. The areas along the veins become reddish-brown. Damage by the spider mites is regularly observed from October through February causing a reduction in photosynthesis of up to 30 percent. Infested leaves often abscise prematurely. Control measures are often started when mite pressures reach six or more mites per leaf. For spider mites in general, life cycles may last several weeks. The female lays 40 to 50 eggs over a lifetime, and they are capable of overwintering within the grove (6).

Mango bud mite (A. mangiferae) is found on buds and is associated with two diseases depending on the presence of Fusarium sp. fungi. When the fungus is absent and the buds are attacked, a witches’ broom develops at the terminal branch. When the fungus is present, galls form on flowers and foliage (6).

SCALE (Chrysomphalus dictyospermi, Chrysomphalus aonidum, Ceroplastes floridensis, Protopulvinaria pyriformis, Aspidiotus nerii, Radionaspis indica, Morganella longispina)

Soft and armored scales are plant-feeding insects which are often controlled by natural and released parasites, predators, and pathogens. In cases when the natural balance of predation has been disrupted, scale populations may increase to levels requiring treatment. Since scale insects are relatively immobile and at least one month is required for the egg to reach the adult stage, an infestation builds up slowly (in comparison to mites or aphids) and may be hard to spot. It is also important to verify that the scale insects attached to the plant are alive, as mummies accumulate on the plant over time. Economic thresholds for scale have not been determined. Most effective control is obtained when the scales are in nymphal stages, as egg and adult stages are recalcitrant to insecticide applications (7).

THRIPS (Selenothrips rubrocinctus, Frankliniella bispinosa, Frankliniella kelliae)

The redbanded thrips is ubiquitous in its distribution throughout Florida, but it is generally found in damaging numbers from Orlando to Key West. Female redbanded thrips are slightly greater than 1 mm in length, and have a dark brown to black body underlain by red pigment, chiefly in the first three abdominal segments. The larvae is light yellow to orange, with the first three and last segments of the abdomen bright red. The life cycle of this thrips is about three weeks in Florida, and several generations are possible each year. In addition to attacking avocado and mango, this thrips also attacks sweetgum trees. Redbanded thrips prefer young foliage, which may lead to leaf drop, at times totally denuding trees. The frass and associated sooty mold from thrips feeding gives rise to fruit which is out-of-grade (8).

In Florida, the thrips complex consisting of the two Frankliniella species is the most frequently observed blossom pest. It causes damage by ovipositing in the panicle and feeding on the floral nectaries and anthers, which may result in premature loss of pollen. These thrips are light-yellow and appear commonly during the dry season from January to April (6).

AMBROSIA BEETLES (Xylosandrus spp.)

The scolytid beetles of this genus attack the main stem and branches of mango trees. Secondary fungal infections extend terminally and basally from the beetle gallery in the tree and can kill the affected branches. The insect prefers trees that have been weakened by stress (wind, drought, etc). However, once a population has been established in a planting, the infestation spreads to healthy trees (6).

Chemical Control:
In 1999-2000, 64 percent of responding mango growers surveyed reported insecticide use. Those survey respondents that provided insect damage estimates indicated that from 10 to 100 percent of the mango crop would be lost to insect damage (n=7, mean of 45 percent). Insecticides and miticides registered for use on Florida mango include azadirachtin (Margosan®), Bacillus thuringiensis (Targa®), Beauveria bassiana (Fermone Naturalis®), imidacloprid (Provado®), fenoxycarb (Logic® – for ants only on non-bearing trees), harpin protein (Messenger®), insecticidal oil (Sunspray®, JMS Stylet Oil®), insecticidal soap (Organica®), malathion, methidathion (Supracide®), pyrethrin (Pyrenone®), pyrethrin plus rotenone (Pyrellin®) and sulfur.

CROP OILS (Sunspray®, JMS Stylet Oil®):
Crop oils work by smothering immobile insects such as scales, aphids, and mites. The oils are usually made up as 1.5 to 3 percent solutions which are applied thoroughly to each tree. Price varies greatly based on amount and formulation used. The restricted entry interval (REI) for crop oils is 4 hours and there is no pre-harvest interval (9). In 1999-2000, 50 percent of surveyed mango growers in Florida applied oil to their acreage once (43 percent), twice (43 percent), or four times (14 percent) per season for an average use of 1.9 times per season.

MALATHION (Malathion 5 EC®):
Malathion is an organophosphorous compound which causes death by interfering with proper nerve transmission. Malathion is used to control a variety of insect pests (10). The median price of malathion is $5.44 per pound of active ingredient and the approximate cost per application is $5.10 per acre (10,11). The pre-harvest interval (PHI) is 2 days and the REI is 12 hours (10). In 1999-2000, 21 percent of surveyed mango growers in Florida applied malathion to their acreage three times (66 percent) or five times (33 percent) for an average use of 3.6 times per season.

METHIDATHION (Supracide®):
Methidathion is an organophosphate insecticide used to manage sucking insects such as scale and mealybug (6). The price of methidathion is $29.16 per pound of active ingredient and the approximate cost per application is $7.29 per acre (6,11). There is a maximum of five applications per year, and all applications must be made after harvest and before bloom. The REI is 48 hours (12). In 1999-2000, 36 percent of surveyed mango growers applied methidathion to their acreage once (60 percent), twice (20 percent), or three times (20 percent) for an average use of 1.6 times per season.

PYRETHRIN + ROTENONE (Pyrellin®):
These two natural compounds both have contact and stomach activity (13). The mixture is used to manage sucking and chewing insects. The median price of the mixture is $892.86 per pound of active ingredient and the approximate cost per application is $25.00 per acre (14,15). The PHI and REI are both 12 hours. In 1999-2000, 7 percent of mango growers reported the use of Pyrellin® twice a year.

BACILLUS THURINGIENSIS (Prolong®):
The biopesticide Bacillus thuringiensis (B.t.) is used to manage lepidopteran larvae. The median price of B.t. is $140.16 per pound of active ingredient and the approximate cost per application is $13.18 per acre (11,16). B.t. may be applied up to the day of harvest (PHI= 0 day), and the REI is 4 hours (16). In 1999-2000, 7 percent of surveyed mango growers in Florida applied B.t. to their acreage twice per season.

IMIDACLOPRID (Provado®):
Imidacloprid is a neonicotinoid insecticide which induces anti-feeding behavior particularly in sucking insects (13). The compound is used to manage thrips and whiteflies. The price of imidacloprid is $276.87 per pound of active ingredient and the approximate cost per application is $22.84 per acre (6,11). The PHI for imidacloprid is 30 days and the REI is 12 hours. No more than 0.083 pounds of active ingredient per acre may be applied per application and the seasonal maximum is 0.5 pounds of active ingredient. There must be seven days at a minimum between applications. The material is not to be applied during bloom or when bees are present (17). In 1999-2000, 7 percent of mango growers in Florida applied imidacloprid to their acreage once per season.

Alternative Control:
Several new “reduced impact” chemicals have been registered for use in mangos. Messenger® (harpin protein) and Naturalis® (Beauveria bassiana) are two products which are just now being assessed for insect management. Additionally, new strains of B.t. are reaching the market which are reportedly more toxic to a greater range of lepidopteran larvae.

Cultural Control:
Based on survey results of all tropical fruit growing respondents, 44 percent reported keeping records of pest problems, 50 percent adjusted applications (timing or rate) to protect beneficial insects and mites, and 52 percent alternated pesticides to reduce resistance. Sixty-two percent reported selecting the pesticide that is least toxic to beneficial insects and mites and 63 percent spot sprayed only infested plants or areas. Seventy percent reported selecting pesticides that are least toxic to the environment to make this the dominant form of cultural pest control.

Biological Control:
Seven percent of the responding tropical fruit growers reported release of predatory wasps for control of lepidopteran pests. Additionally, 30 percent reported the use of biological-derived pesticides like B.t.

Weeds

Weeds can reduce mango yields by competing primarily for water and nutrients. Although individual weed species may vary regionally, predominant weed species in groves are grasses, sedges, and pigweeds (18). However, species composition is less important as the trend has been toward use of non-selective, post-emergent herbicides.

Chemical Control:
There are three herbicides labeled for use on bearing mango (glyphosate, sulfosate, and pelargonic acid). Fluazifop-p-butyl can be used on non-bearing mango trees. All of these herbicides are used to control weeds between trees. In 1999-2000, 86 percent of mango growers surveyed reported herbicide use. Non-selective herbicides labeled for use in mango include glyphosate (Roundup®), pelargonic acid (Scythe®), and sulfosate (Touchdown®). All of these are post-emergence herbicides. Fluazifop-p-butyl (Fusilade®2000) is the only selective herbicide labeled for mango in Florida and it is also a post-emergence herbicide.

GLYPHOSATE (Roundup®):
Glyphosate is a phosphorylated amino acid herbicide used for total vegetation control. Glyphosate is applied as a directed spray so that mango foliage is not injured. The median price of glyphosate is $9.49 per pound of active ingredient and the approximate cost per application is $19.22 per acre for annual weeds and $48.04 for perennial weeds (11,19). The REI for glyphosate is 4 hours and the PHI is 14 days (19).In 1999-2000, 86 percent of surveyed mango growers in Florida applied glyphosate either one (8 percent), two (18 percent), three (8 percent), four (50 percent), five (8 percent), or six (8 percent) times for an average seasonal use of 3.6 times.

SULFOSATE (Touchdown®):
Sulfosate is similar to glyphosate in mode of action and it is also used for total vegetation control by directed spray. The median price of sulfosate is $8.80 per pound of active ingredient and the approximate cost per application is $13.20 per acre for annual weeds and $33.00 per acre for perennial weeds (11,20). The REI for sulfosate is 12 hours and the PHI is 14 days (20). Based on survey results, 7 percent of mango growers in Florida applied sulfosate once per season.

Diseases

Fungi and algae are responsible for the principal diseases affecting mango production in Florida. The most recurrent and problematic diseases include anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides/Glomerella cingulata), powdery mildew (Oidium spp.),scab (Elsinoe mangiferae), spot (Pestalotiopsis mangiferae, Phyllosticta anacardeacearum), and wilt (Verticillium albo-atrum). Algal spot (Cephaleuros virescens) may become prevalent in late summer through late winter. Other diseases that intermittently affect mango production are dieback (Botryodiplodia theobromae, Botrysphaeria ribis), stem-end rot (Diplodia spp., Phomopsis spp.) and witches’ broom (Fusarium subglutinans) (21,22).

ANTHRACNOSE (caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides/Glomerella cingulata)

Anthracnose can occur on all parts of the mango tree. Leaf infection starts as small, dark, angular to irregular spots which often coalesce to from large necrotic areas which may crack. Infections on the flower panicle appear as small brown or black spots which enlarge and often coalesce to cause the death of flowers. Small fruit are rapidly invaded by the fungus once they become infected. On nearly mature or ripe fruit, black spots coalesce to cover large areas, which may be sunken. Surface “tear staining” may be apparent on the fruit, which is due to spores falling from an inoculum source above the fruit (21,22).

POWDERY MILDEW (caused by Oidium spp.)

In severe attacks, the entire blossom panicle may be involved and fruit fail to set. Infected flowers, flower stalks, and young fruit become coated with the whitish powdery growth of the pathogen and the flowers and young infected fruits are similarly coated with the white fungal growth. Younger leaves may become distorted. On older leaves and fruit, infected tissue has a purplish-brown cast, as the white growth weathers away. The infection on fruit may also appear as an irregular blotch. Affected fruit may turn brown and fall off the tree. The disease is a particular problem in cool dry years (21,22).

SCAB (caused by Elsinoe mangiferae)

Scab is a pathogen of young leaves and colonization is favored in cool, wet conditions. Signs of scab on leaves are small spots on the underside of leaves which turn from dark-brown to gray. Leaves may become distorted and twisted if the infestation is heavy. Gray lesions on twigs may also be apparent. Fruit develops irregular, gray lesions which enlarge as it matures. The lesion centers become corky, cracked, and often exhibit the velvety growth of the fungus in moist weather (21).

LEAF SPOT (caused by Pestalotiopsis mangiferae and Phyllosticta anacardeacearum)

Both of these fungi cause leaf spot in mango, but with slightly different appearances. P. mangiferae spots are gray in color and irregular in shape. They may range from a few millimeters to several centimeters in diameter. P. EM>anacardeacearum leaf spots are bleached to white in color and can be numerous on leaves. Both fungi form black dot-like reproductive structures in the lesion centers (21).

ALGAL SPOT (caused by Cephaleuros virescens)

This alga commences colonization late in the summer and progresses through the winter months. Initially hard to visualize, green, yellow-green, or rust colored leaf spots up to 5 mm in size become raised and roughly circular. Stems may develop cankers where infestation is high. The alga eventually produces “spores” – which are rust colored. These will give rise to more algae if not controlled with copper sprays (21,22).

VERTICILLIUM WILT (caused by Verticillium albo-atrum)

This soil-borne fungus is more prevalent in trees planted in historic areas of solanaceous crop production. The fungus invades water-conducting structures in the roots, causing a persistent wilt, that is often one-sided on the tree. Brown or gray streaks may be observed in the vascular tissue, once the bark is peeled away. Leaves may die for lack of water, but remain attached for some time. Trees also may flush out with new shoots several months after collapse, apparently recovered from the infection (21,22).

Chemical Control:
In 1999-2000, 93 percent of mango growers surveyed reported fungicide use. Those survey respondents that provided damage estimates indicated that from 5 to 100 percent of the mango crop would be lost to disease (n=13, mean of 73 percent). Fungicides registered for use on mango include mefenoxam (Ridomil Gold®), benomyl (Benlate®), copper (Kocide®/Basicop®), sulfur (Thiolux®), carbonic acid (Armicarb®), and ferbam (Ferbam Granuflo®).

COPPER (Kocide®/Basicop®):
Copper has long been used as a fungicide and can be applied in multiple forms (copper hydroxide, copper sulfate, etc.). Copper is used to manage anthracnose, scab, and algal spot (21). The median price of copper hydroxide is $2.11 per pound of active ingredient and the approximate cost per application is $13.00 per acre (11,23). The PHI and REI for copper hydroxide are 0 day and 24 hours, respectively (23). Based on survey results, 79 percent of mango growers in Florida applied copper either twice (9 percent), four times (9 percent), five times (18 percent), six times (37 percent), eight times (9 percent) or ten times (18 percent) per season for an average seasonal use of 6.2 times.

SULFUR (Thiolux®):
As with copper, sulfur has long been used as a fungicide and can be applied in the form of copper sulfate or elemental sulfur. Sulfur is used to manage powdery mildew and anthracnose (as well as mites occasionally). The median price of sulfur is $0.88 per pound of active ingredient and the approximate cost per application is $21.12 per acre (11,21). The PHI and REI for sulfur are 0 day and 24 hours, respectively (24). Based on survey results, 50 percent of mango growers in Florida applied sulfur either twice (44 percent), four times (14 percent), six times (14 percent), eight times (14 percent), or ten times (14 percent) per season for an average use of 4.8 times.

FERBAM (Ferbam Granuflo®):
Ferbam is a iron-containing dithiocarbamate fungicide that is used to manage anthracnose in mango under a special local needs registration. The median price of ferbam is $4.34 per pound of active ingredient and the approximate cost per application is $16.49 per acre (25). The PHI and REI for ferbam are 0 day and 24 hours, respectively. No more than 60.8 pounds of active ingredient may be applied per season (25). Based on survey results, 43 percent of mango growers in Florida applied ferbam once (17 percent), twice (32 percent), ten times (17 percent), twelve times (17 percent), or sixteen times (17 percent) per season for an average use of 7.3 times.

BENOMYL (Benlate®):
Benomyl is a systemic, benzimidazole fungicide used to manage anthracnose, scab, and powdery mildew (21). The median price of benomyl is $32.40 per pound of active ingredient and the approximate cost per application is $32.40 per acre (11,26). The PHI and REI for benomyl are 14 days and 24 hours, respectively. There is a use restriction of three pounds of active ingredient per year (26). Based on survey results, 36 percent of mango growers in Florida applied benomyl either once (20 percent), twice (20 percent), four times (20 percent), six times (20 percent), or ten times (20 percent) per season for an average use of 4.6 times. Benomyl production ceased in spring of 2001.

Alternative Control:
Several new “reduced impact” chemicals have been registered for use in mango. Messenger® (harpin protein) and Armicarb® (monopotassium carbonic acid) are two products which are now being assessed for disease management.

Post-harvest Control:
Careful handling during and after harvest, removal of infected mangos during grading, and adequate temperature maintenance can all aid in minimizing losses from post-harvest decays. In addition to the causative agent of anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides), post-harvest disease organisms that can cause rotting include Diplodia spp. and Phomopsis spp. (21).

Nematodes

Plant-parasitic nematodes are microscopic roundworms, found in soils, which primarily attack plant roots. General signs of nematode damage include stunting, premature wilting, leaf yellowing, root malformation, and related symptoms characteristic of nutrient deficiencies. Stunting and poor stand development tend to occur in patches throughout the field as a result of the irregular distribution of nematodes within the soil.

Nematodes associated with mango include Rotylenchulus reniformis, Criconemella sphaerocephala, Helicotylenchus dihystera, and Hemicriconemoides mangiferae. H. mangiferae is known to be pathogenic to mango trees, as well as sapodilla and tamarind, and infestations of this nematode induce a slow decline of mango (27,28).

Chemical Control:
The only products registered for use on mango in Florida that claim nematode suppression are Messenger® (harpin protein) and Ditera® (fermentation products of Myrothecium verrucaria strain AARC-0255). These products have recently been registered and are just now being assessed for nematode management. Harpin protein activates the systemic acquired resistance of a plant, using the endogenous “immune” system of the plant to ward off nematode attack. Myrothecium verrucaria is a soil fungus that affects juvenile and adult nematodes as well as egg development (13).

Contacts

Jonathan Crane is an associate professor of horticultural science located at the Tropical Research and Education Center in South Florida. He is responsible for research and extension duties associated with tropical fruit. Dr. Crane can be reached at:

TREC
18905 SW 280th St.
PO Box 111569
Homestead, FL 33031-3314
(305) 246-7001, jhcr@mail.ifas.ufl.edu.

Michael Aerts is the assistant director of the Environmental and Pest Management Division of the Florida Fruit and Vegetable Association. He facilitates communication between commodity groups and regulatory agencies. Mr. Aerts can be reached at:

FFVA
4401 E. Colonial Drive
Box 140155
Orlando, FL 32814
407) 894-1351
maerts@ffva.com.

Mark Mossler is a pesticide information specialist for the Food Science and Human Nutrition Department’s Pesticide Information Office at the University of Florida’s Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. He is responsible for providing pesticide information to the public and governmental agencies. Mr. Mossler can be reached at:

UF/IFAS PIO
Box 110710
Gainesville, FL 32611
(352) 392-4721
mamossler@mail.ifas.ufl.edu.

References

Tropical Fruit Acres and Trees. 2000. Florida Agricultural Statistics Service, Orlando, FL. Available: http://www.nass.usda.gov/fl/citrus/tfat00.htm.

Tropical Fruit Production and Value. 2001. Florida Agricultural Statistics Service, Orlando, FL. Available: http://www.nass.usda.gov/fl/citrus/tfpv01.htm.

Degner, R.L., Moss, S.D., and Mulkey, W.D. August 1997. University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Report: Economic Impact of Agriculture and Agribusiness in Dade County, Florida. Florida Agricultural Market Research Center Industry Report 97-1. Gainesville, FL.

Crane, J.H. and Campbell, C.W. April 1994. The Mango. Horticultural Sciences Fact Sheet HS-2. Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Available: http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/MG216.

Cooper, A., Poirier, S., Murphy, M., Oswald, M.J., and Procise, C. July 1998. South Florida Tropicals: Mango. Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Available: http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/HE625.

Pena, J. and Johnson, F. October 1998. Insect Management in Mango. Department of Entomology and Nematology Document ENY-413. Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Available: http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/IG073.

Browning, H.W. and Knapp, J.L. October 2000. 2001 Florida Citrus Pest Management Guide: Scale Insects. Fact Sheet ENY-604. Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Available: http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/CG004.

Denmark, H.A. and Wolfenbarger, D.O. July 1999. Redbanded Thrips. Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, and Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry Featured Creatures web site. Available: http://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu/orn/thrips/redbanded_thrips.htm.

JMS Flower Farms Labels. Available: http://www.cdms.net/manuf/mprod.asp?mp=126.

Microflo Labels. Available: http://www.cdms.net/manuf/mprod.asp?mp=25.

DPRA. March 2001. AGCHEMPRICE, Current U.S.A. Prices of Non-Fertilizer Agricultural Chemicals. Summary Edition. DPRA Incorporated, Manhattan, KS.

Gowan Labels. Available: http://www.cdms.net/manuf/mprod.asp?mp=9.

Thomson, W.T. 2001. Agricultural Chemicals Book I Insecticides. Thomson Publications, Fresno, CA.

Personal communication with Wright Webb Corporation, Fort Myers, FL. August, 2001.

Personal communication with Triangle Chemicals, Statesboro, GA. August, 2001.

Cillus Technology Labels. Available: http://www.cdms.net/manuf/mprod.asp?mp=155.

Bayer Labels. Available: http://www.cdms.net/manuf/mprod.asp?mp=128.

Knapp, J.L. February 1999. Citrus Commodity: A Biologic and Economic Assessment of Pesticide Usage. USDA National Agricultural Pesticide Impact Assessment Program Report No. 1-CA-99.

Monsanto Company Labels. Available: http://www.cdms.net/manuf/mprod.asp?mp=23.

Syngenta Labels. Available: http://www.cdms.net/manuf/mprod.asp?mp=153.

Simone, G.W. June 1999. Disease Control in Mango (Mangifera indica). Plant Pathology Department Document PDMG-V3-22. Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Available: http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/PG016.

Pernezny, K. and Marlatt, R.B. December 1993. Some Common Diseases of Mango in Florida. Plant Pathology Department Document PP-23. Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Available: http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/VH048.

Griffin Labels. Available: http://www.cdms.net/manuf/mprod.asp?mp=14.

UAP-West Labels. Available: http://www.cdms.net/manuf/mprod.asp?mp=156.

Personal communication with UCB Chemicals, Smyrna, GA. September, 2001.

DuPont Crop Protection – 2001. E.I. DuPont de Nemours and Company, Wilmington, DE.

McSorley, R., Campbell, C.W., and Goldweber, S. 1980. Observations on a Mango Decline in South Florida. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc. 93:132-133.

McSorley, R., and Parrado, J.L. 1982. Spatial Arrangement of Nematodes Around Four Species of Tropical Fruit Trees. Nematropica. Vol. 12, No. 2.

January, 2002

Over 500 named varieties (some say 1,000) have evolved and have been described in India. Perhaps some are duplicates by different names, but at least 350 are propagated in commercial nurseries. In 1949, K.C. Naik described 82 varieties grown in South India. L.B. and R.N. Singh presented and illustrated 150 in their monograph on the mangos of Uttar Pradesh (1956). In 1958, 24 were described as among the important commercial types in India as a whole, though in the various climatic zones other cultivars may be prominent locally. Of the 24, the majority are classed as early or mid-season:

Early:

‘Bombay Yellow’ (‘Bombai’)–high quality

‘Malda’ (‘Bombay Green’)

‘01our’ (polyembryonic)–a heavy bearer.

‘Pairi’ (‘Paheri’, ‘Pirie’, ‘Peter’, ‘Nadusalai’, ‘grape’, ‘Raspuri’, ‘Goha bunder’)

‘Safdar Pasand’

‘Suvarnarekha’ (‘Sundri’)

Early to Mid-Season:

‘Langra’

‘Rajapuri’

Mid-Season:

‘Alampur Baneshan’–high quality but shy bearer

‘Alphonso’ (‘Badami’, ‘gundu’, ‘appas’, ‘khader’)–high quality

‘Bangalora’(‘Totapuri’, ‘collection’, ‘kili-mukku’, abu Samada’ in the Sudan)–of highest quality, best keeping, regular bearer, but most susceptible to seed weevil.

‘Banganapally’ (‘Baneshan’, ‘chaptai’, ‘Safeda’)–of high quality but shy bearer

‘Dusehri’ (‘Dashehari aman’, ‘nirali aman’, ‘kamyab’)–high quality

‘Gulab Khas’

‘Zardalu’

‘K.O. 11′

Mid- to Late-Season:

‘Rumani’ (often bearing an off-season crop)

‘Samarbehist’ (‘Chowsa’, ‘Chausa’, ‘Khajri’)–high quality

‘Vanraj’

‘K.O. 7/5′ (‘Himayuddin’ ´ ‘Neelum’)

Late:

‘Fazli’ (‘Fazli malda’)–high quality

‘Safeda Lucknow’

Often Late:

‘Mulgoa’–high quality but a shy bearer

‘Neelum’ (sometimes twice a year)–somewhat dwarf, of indifferent quality, and anthracnose-susceptible.

Most of the leading Indian cultivars are seedling selections. Over 50,000 crosses were made over a period of 20 years in India and 750 hybrids were raised and screened. Of these, ‘Mallika’, a cross of ‘Neelum’ (female parent) with ‘Dashehari’ (male parent) was released for cultivation in 1972. The hybrid tends toward regular bearing, the fruits are showier and are thicker of flesh than either parent, the flavor is superior and keeping quality better. The season is nearly a month later than ‘Dashehari’. Another new hybrid, ‘Amrapali’, of which ‘Dashehari’ was the female parent and ‘Neelum’ the male, is definitely dwarf, precocious, a regular and heavy bearer, and late in the season. The fruit is only medium in size; flesh is rich orange, fiberless, sweet and 2 to 3 times as high in carotene as either parent.

The Central Food Technological Research Institute Experiment Station in Hyderabad has evaluated 9 “table varieties” (firm-fleshed), 4 “juicy” varieties, and 5 hybrids as to suitability for processing. ‘Baneshan’, ‘Suvarnarekha’ and ‘5/5 Rajapuri’ ´ ‘Langra’ were deemed suitable for slicing and canning. ‘Baneshan’, ‘Navaneetam’, ‘Goabunder’, ‘Royal Special’, ‘Hydersaheb’ and ‘9/4 Neelum Baneshan’, for canned juice; and ‘Baneshan’, ‘Navaneetam’, ‘Goabunder’, ‘K.O. 7′and ‘Sharbatgadi’ for canned nectar.

Fig. 63: ‘Black Cold’ mangoes, dark-green externally when ripe, are partly peeled like “radish roses” on the Bangkok market to show their yellow, fiberless flesh.

It is interesting to note that all but four of the leading Indian cultivars are yellow-skinned. The exceptions are: two yellow with a red blush on shoulders, one red-yellow with a blush of red, and one green. In Thailand, there is a popular mango called ‘Tong dum’ (‘Black Gold’) marketed when the skin is very dark-green and usually displayed with the skin at the stem end cut into points and spread outward to show the golden flesh in the manner that red radishes are fashioned into “radish roses” in American culinary art.

European consumers prefer a deep-yellow mango that develops a reddish-pink tinge. In Florida, the color of the mango is an important factor and everyone admires a handsome mango more or less generously overlaid with red. Red skin is considered a necessity in mangos shipped to northern markets, even though the quality may be inferior to that of non-showy cultivars. Also, dependable bearing and shippability are rated above internal qualities for practical reasons. And a shipping mango must be one that can be picked 2 weeks before full maturity without appreciable loss of flavor. Too, there must be several varieties to extend the season over at least 3 months.

Florida mangos are classed in 4 groups:

1–Indian varieties, mainly monoembryonic, introduced in the past and maintained mostly in collections; typically of somewhat “turpentine” character.

2–Philippine and Indo-Chinese types, largely polyembryonic, non-turpentiney, fiberless, fairly anthracnose-resistant. Scattered in dooryard plantings.

3–West Indian/South American mangos, especially ‘Turpentine’ and ‘No.11′ and the superior ‘Julie’ from Trinidad, ‘Madame Francis’ from Haiti, ‘Itamaraca’ from Brazil. These are non-commercial.

4–Florida-originated selections or cultivars, of which many have risen and declined over the decades.

In general, mangos from the Philippines (‘Carabao’) and Thailand (‘Saigon’, ‘Cambodiana’) behave better in Florida’s humidity than the Indian varieties.

The much-prized ‘Haden’ was being recognized in the late 1930’s and early 1940’s as anthracnose-prone, a light and irregular bearer, and was being replaced by more disease-resistant and prolific cultivars. The present-day leaders for commercial production and shipping are ‘Tommy Atkins’, ‘Keitt’, ‘Kent’, ‘Van Dyke’ and Jubilee’. The first 2 represent 50% of the commercial crop.

Plate XXVIII: MANGO, Mangifera indica–’Kent’, ‘Tommy Atkins’, and ‘Irwin’

‘Tommy Atkins’ (from a seed planted early in the 1920’s at Fort Lauderdale, Florida; commercially adopted in the late 1950’s); oblong-oval; medium to large; skin thick, orange-yellow, largely overlaid with bright- to dark-red and heavy purplish bloom, and dotted with many large, yellow-green lenticels. Flesh medium- to dark-yellow, firm, juicy, with medium fiber, of fair to good quality; flavor poor if over-fertilized and irrigated. Seed small. Season: mid-May to early July, or late June through July, depending on spring weather; can be picked early, developing good color and usually has long shelf-life. Sometimes there is an open space in the flesh at the stem-end. Interior softening near the seed occurs in some years. Anthracnose-resistant.

‘Keitt’–rounded-oval to ovate; large; skin medium-thick, yellow with light-red blush and a lavender bloom; the many lenticels small, yellow to red. Flesh orange-yellow, firm, fiberless except near the seed; of rich, sweet flavor; very good quality. Seed small, or medium to large. Season: early July through August or August and September, depending on spring weather. Tree small to medium, erect, open, rather scraggly but very productive. For market acceptance, requires post-harvest ethylene treatment to enhance color.

‘Kent’–ovate, thick; large; skin greenish-yellow with dark-red blush and gray bloom; many small, yellow lenticels. Flesh fiberless, juicy, sweet; very good to excellent. Seed small. Season: July and August and often into September, but if left on too long the seed tends to sprout in the fruit–a condition called ovipary. Subject to black spot. Tree is of erect, slender habit, of moderate size, precocious; bears very well and fruit ships well, but, for the market, needs ethylene treatment to enrich color.

‘Van Dyke’ and ‘Jubilee’ are relatively new cultivars maturing from late June through July. ‘Van Dyke’ is of superior color and excellent quality but subject to anthracnose and may not hold its place for long.

Two cultivars that have stood the test of time and have been shipped north on a lesser scale are:

‘Sensation’ (originated in North Miami; tree moved to Carmichael grove near Perrine and propagated and grown commercially since 1949). Oval, oblique, and faintly beaked; medium to medium-small; skin thin, adherent; basically yellow to yellow-orange overlaid with dark plum-red, and with tiny, pale-yellow lenticels. Flesh pale-yellow, firm, with very little fiber, faintly aromatic, of mild, slightly sweet flavor; of good quality. Monoembryonic. Tree bears heavily in August.

‘Palmer’–oblong-ovate, plump; large; skin medium-thick, orange-yellow with red blush and pale bloom and many large lenticels. Flesh dull-yellow, firm, with very little or no fiber; of fair to good quality. Seed long, of medium size. Season: July and August, sometimes into September. Tree is medium to large; precocious; usually bears well.

The leading cultivar for local market at present is:

‘Irwin’ (a seedling of ‘Lippens’, planted by F.D. Irwin of Miami in 1939; bore its first fruits in 1945); oblong-ovate, one shoulder oblique; of medium size; skin orange to pink with extensive dark-red blush and small, white lenticels. Seed of medium size. Flesh yellow, almost fiberless, with mild, sweet flavor; good to very good quality. Seed small. Season: mid-May to early July; or June through July. Tree somewhat dwarf; bears heavy crops of fruits in clusters. Fruit no longer shipped because if picked before full maturity ripens with a mottled appearance which is not acceptable on the market.

Plate XXVII: MANGO, Mangifera indica–’Cambodiana’

Non-colorful or not high-yielding cultivars of excellent quality recommended for Florida homeowners include:

‘Carrie’ (somewhat dwarf); ‘Edward’ (‘Haden’ seedling); ‘Florigon’; ‘Jacquelin’; ‘Cambodiana’; ‘Cecil’; ‘Saigon’.

Among cultivars formerly commercial but largely top-worked to others favored for various reasons: ‘Davis-Haden’ (a ‘Haden’ seedling); ‘Fascell’; ‘Lippens’ (a ‘Haden’ seedling); ‘Smith’ (a ‘Haden’ seedling); ‘Spring-fels’; ‘Dixon’; ‘Sunset’; ‘Zill’ (a ‘Haden’ seedling).

Many cultivars that have lost popularity in Florida have become of importance elsewhere. ‘Sandersha’, for example, has proved remarkably resistant to most mango fruit diseases in South Africa.

The histories and descriptions of 46 cultivars growing in Brazil were published in 1955. These included ‘Brooks’, ‘Cacipura’, ‘Cambodiana’, ‘Goa-Alphonso’, ‘Haden’, ‘Mulgoba’, ‘Pairi’, ‘Pico’, ‘Sandersha’, ‘Singapore’, ‘White Langra’, all brought in from Florida. The rest are mostly local seedlings. ‘Haden’ was introduced from Florida in 1931 and has been widely cultivated. It is still included among the cultivars of major importance, the others being ‘Extrema’, ‘Non-Plus-Ultra’. ‘Carlota’; but in 1977 the leading cultivar in Brazil was reported to be ‘Bourbon’, also known as ‘Espada’. It is found especially in northeastern Brazil but is recommended for all other mango areas. A collection of 53 cultivars is maintained at Piricicaba and another of 82 at Bahia.

Of Mexican mangos, 65% are Florida selections; 35% are of the type commonly grown in the Philippines. Over a period of 3 years detailed studies have been made of the commercial cultivars in Culiacan, Sinaloa, Mexico, with a view to determining the most profitable for export. Results indicated that propagation of ‘Purple Irwin’, ‘Red Irwin’, ‘Sensation’ and ‘Zill’ should be discontinued, and that ‘Haden’, ‘Kent’ and ‘Keitt’ will continue to be planted, the first two because, of their color and quality, and the third in spite of its deficiency in color.

‘Manila’, a Philippine mango, early-ripening, is much grown in Veracruz. ‘Manzanillo-Nunez’, a chance seedling first noticed in 1972, is gaining in popularity because of its regular bearing, skin color (75% red), nearly fiberless flesh, good quality, high yield and resistance to anthracnose.

‘Julie’ is the main mango exported from the West Indies to Europe. The fruit is somewhat flattened on one side, of medium size; the flesh is not completely fiberless but is of good flavor. It came to Florida from Trinidad but has long been popular in Jamaica. The tree is somewhat dwarf, has 30% to 50% hermaphrodite flowers; bears well and regularly. It is adaptable to humid environments and disease-resistant and the fruit is resistant to the fruit fly. ‘Julie’ has been grown in Ghana since the early 1920’s. From ‘Julie’, the well-known mango breeder, Lawrence Zill, developed ‘Carrie’, but ‘Julie’ has not been planted in Florida for many years.

Grafted plants of the ‘Bombay Green’, so popular in Jamaica, were brought there from India in 1869 by the then governor, Sir John Peter Grant, but were planted in Castleton gardens where the trees flourished but failed to fruit in the humid atmosphere. Years later, a Director of Agriculture had budwood from these trees transferred to rootstocks at Hope Gardens. The results were so successful that the ‘Bombay Green’ became commonly planted on the island. The author brought six grafted trees from Jamaica to Miami in 1951 and, after they were released from quarantine, distributed them to the Subtropical Experiment Station in Homestead, the Newcomb Nursery, and a private grower, but all succumbed to the cold in succeeding winters. The fruit is completely fiberless and freestone so that it is frequently served cut in half and eaten with a spoon. The seed is pierced with a mango fork and served also so that the luscious flesh that adheres to it may be enjoyed as well.

One of the best-known mangos peculiar to the West Indies is ‘Madame Francis’ which is produced abundantly in Haiti. It is a large, flattened, kidney-shaped mango, light-green, slightly yellowish when ripe, with orange, low-fiber, richly flavored flesh. This mango has been regularly exported to Florida in late spring after fumigation against the fruit fly.

Ghana received more than a dozen cultivars back in the early 1920’s. In 1973, it was found that only three of these–’Julie’, ‘Jaffna’ and ‘Rupee’–could be recognized with certainty. More than a dozen other cultivars were brought in much later from Florida and India. An effort was begun in 1967 to classify the seedlings (from 10 to 50 years of age) in the Ejura district, the Ejura Agricultural Station, and the plantation of the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, in order to eliminate confusion and have identifiable cultivars marked for future research. After checking with available published material on other cultivars for possible resemblances, descriptions and photographs of 21 newly named cultivars were published in 1973. Of these, 12 are fibrous and 9 fiberless. (See Godfrey-Sam-Aggrey and Arbutiste in the Bibliography). One of the fibrous cultivars, named ‘Tee-Vee-Dee’, is so well flavored and aromatic that it is locally extremely popular.

Until the mid-1960’s mangos were grown only in dooryards in Surinam and the few varieties were largely polyembryonic types from Indonesia, and these have given rise to many chance seedlings. In order to discover the best for commercial planting, mango exhibits were sponsored and budwood of the best selections has been grafted onto various rootstocks at the Paramaribo Agricultural Experiment Station. The two most important local mangos are:

‘Golek’ (from Java; also grown in Queensland) long-oblong; skin dull-green or yellowish-green even when ripe, leathery; flesh pale yellow, thick, fiberless, sweet, rich, of excellent quality. Keeps well in cold storage for 3 weeks. Season: early (December in Queensland). Tree bears moderately to heavily. This cultivar is considered the most promising for large-scale culture and export. In Queensland it tends to crack longitudinally as it matures.

‘Roodborstje’–medium to large; skin deep-red; flesh sweet, juicy, with very little fiber. Not a good keeper. Season: early to midseason. Tree is a heavy bearer.

In Venezuela, eleven cultivars were evaluated by food technologists for processing suitability–’Blackman’, ‘Glenn’, ‘Irwin’, ‘Kent’, ‘Lippens’, ‘Martinica’, ‘Sensation’, ‘Smith’, ‘Selection 80′, ‘Selection 85′, and ‘Zill’. The most appropriate, because of physicochemical characteristics and productivity were determined to be: ‘Glenn’, ‘Irwin’, ‘Kent’ and ‘Zill’.

In Hawaii, ‘Haden’ has represented 90% of all commercial production. ‘Pairi’ is more prized for home use but is a shy bearer, a poor keeper, not as colorful as ‘Haden’, so it never attained commercial status. In a search for earlier and later varieties of commercial potential, over 125 varieties were collected and tested between 1934 and 1969. In 1956, one of the winning entries in a mango contest attracted much attention. After propagation and due observation it was named ‘Gouveia’ in 1969 and described as: ovate-oblong, of medium size, with medium-thick, ochre-yellow skin blushed with blood-red over 2/3 of the surface. Flesh is orange, nearly fiberless, sweet, juicy. Seed is small, slender, monoembryonic. Season: late. Tree is of medium size, a consistent but not heavy bearer. In quality tests ‘Gouveia’ received top scoring over ‘Haden’, ‘Pairi’, and several other cultivars. Florida mangos rated as promising for Hawaii were ‘Pope’, ‘Kent’, ‘Keitt’ and ‘Brooks’ (later than ‘Haden’) and ‘Earlygold’ and ‘Zill’ (earlier than ‘Haden’).

In Queensland, ‘Kensington Pride’ is the leading commercial cultivar in the drier areas. In humid regions it is anthracnose-prone and requires spraying. It is thought to have been introduced by traders in Bowen who were shipping horses for military use in India. It may be called ‘Kensington’, ‘Bowen’, or, because of its color, ‘Apple’ or ‘Strawberry’. The fruit is distinctly beaked when immature, with a groove extending from the stem to the beak. It is medium-large; the skin is bright orange-yellow with red-pink blush overlying areas exposed to the sun. Flesh is orange, thick, nearly fiberless, juicy, of rich flavor. This cultivar is classified as mid-season. The fruit matures from early to mid-November at latitude 13°S; 6 weeks later at Bowen (20°S) and 1 week later for each degree of latitude from Bowen to Brisbane. But at 17°S and an altitude of 1,148 ft (350 m) peak maturity is in mid- to late-January. Polyembryonic. The fruit ships well but the tree is not a dependable nor heavy bearer. It has an oval crown and unusually sweet-scented leaves.

In 1981, after evaluating 43 accessions seeking to lengthen the mango season in Queensland, 9 that mature between 2 weeks earlier and 4 weeks later than ‘Kensington Pride’ were chosen for commercial testing. Only one, ‘Banana-1′, was a Queensland selection. The other 8 were introductions from Florida–’Smith’, ‘Palmer’, ‘Haden’, ‘Zill’, ‘Carrie’, ‘Irwin’, ‘Kent’, ‘Keitt’. ‘Kent’ and ‘Haden’ have proved to be highly susceptible to blackspot in Queensland; ‘Keitt’, ‘Smith’, and ‘Zill’ less so; and ‘Palmer’ and ‘Kensington Pride’ resistant.

In the Philippines, the ‘Carabao’ constitutes 66% of the crop and ‘Pico’ 26%. These cultivars, apparently of Southeast Asian origin have remained the most commonly grown and exported for many years.

In Israel, ‘Haden’ has been popular for a long time though it is sensitive to low temperatures in spring. An Egyptian introduction, ‘Mabroka’ is later in season and escapes the early frosts. ‘Maya’, a local seedling of ‘Haden’ has done well. Perhaps the most promising today is ‘Nimrod’, a seedling of ‘Maya’, open pollinated, perhaps by ‘Haden’, planted in 1943, observed for 20 years and budded progeny for another 9 years; named and released in 1970. The fruit is round-ovate, large; skin is fairly thin, olive-green to yellow-green, blushed with red; attractive. Flesh is deep-yellow, nearly fiberless, of fair flavor. Seed is large, monoembryonic. Matures in mid-season (all August to mid-September in Israel). Tree is large, upright, very cold-resistant. Average yield is 480 lbs (218 kg) per tree over 10 years.

It is impressive to see how the early favorite, ‘Haden’, has influenced mango culture in many parts of the world. Today, the Subtropical Horticulture Research Unit of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Agricultural Research and Education Center of the University of Florida, together maintain 125 mango cultivars as a resource for mango growers and breeders in many countries.

In 1833, Dr. Henry Perrine shipped seedling mango plants from Yucatan to Cape Sable at the southern tip of mainland Florida but these died after he was killed by Indians. Seeds were imported into Miami from the West Indies by a Dr. Fletcher in 1862 or 1863. From these, two trees grew to large size and one was still fruiting in 1910 and is believed to have been the parent of the ‘No. 11′ which was commonly planted for many years thereafter. In 1868 or 1869, seeds were planted south of Coconut Grove and the resultant trees prospered at least until 1909, producing the so-called ‘Peach’ or ‘Turpentine’ mango which became fairly common. In 1872, a seedling of ‘No. 11′ from Cuba was planted in Bradenton. In 1877 and 1879, W.P. Neeld made successful plantings on the west coast but these and most others north of Ft. Myers were killed in the January freeze of 1886.

In 1885, seeds of the excellent ‘Bombay’ mango of India were brought from Key West to Miami and resulted in two trees which flourished until 1909. Plants of grafted varieties were brought in from India by a west coast resident, Rev. D.G. Watt, in 1885 but only two survived the trip and they were soon frozen in a cold spell. Another unsuccessful importation of inarched trees from Calcutta was made in 1888. Of six grafted trees that arrived from Bombay in 1889, through the efforts of the United States Department of Agriculture, only one lived to fruit nine years later. The tree shipped is believed to have been a ‘Mulgoa’ (erroneously labeled ‘Mulgoba’, a name unknown in India except as originating in Florida). However, the fruit produced did not correspond to ‘Mulgoa’ descriptions. It was beautiful, crimson-blushed, just under 1 lb (454 g) with golden-yellow flesh. No Indian visitor has recognized it as matching any Indian variety. Some suggest that it was the fruit of the rootstock if the scion had been frozen in the freeze of 1894-95. At any rate, it continued to be known as ‘Mulgoba’, and it fostered many off-spring along the southeastern coast of the State and in Cuba and Puerto Rico, though it proved to be very susceptible to the disease, anthracnose, in this climate. Seeds from this tree were obtained and planted by a Captain Haden in Miami. The trees fruited some years after his death and his widow gave the name ‘Haden’ to the tree that bore the best fruit. This variety was regarded as the standard of excellence locally for many decades thereafter and was popular for shipping because of its tough skin.

George B. Cellon started extensive vegetative propagation (patch-budding) of the ‘Haden’ in 1900 and shipped the fruits to northern markets. P.J. Wester conducted many experiments in budding, grafting and inarching from 1904 to 1908 with less success. Shield-budding on a commercial scale was achieved by Mr. Orange Pound of Coconut Grove in 1909 and this was a pioneer breakthrough which gave strong impetus to mango growing, breeding, and dissemination.

Enthusiastic introduction of other varieties by the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Bureau of Plant Industry, by nurserymen, and other individuals followed, and the mango grew steadily in popularity and importance. The Reasoner Brothers Nursery, on the west coast, imported many mango varieties and was largely responsible for the ultimate establishment of the mango in that area, together with a Mr. J.W. Barney of Palma Sola who had a large collection of varieties and had worked out a feasible technique of propagation which he called “slot grafting”.

Dr. Wilson Popenoe, one of the early Plant Explorers of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, became Director of the Escuela Agricola Panamericana, Tegucigalpa, Honduras. For more than a quarter of a century, he was a leader in the introduction and propagation of outstanding mangos from India and the East Indies, had them planted at the school and at the Lancetilla Experiment Station at Tela, Honduras, and distributed around tropical America.

In time, the mango became one of the most familiar domesticated trees in dooryards or in small or large commercial plantings throughout the humid and semi-arid lowlands of the tropical world and in certain areas of the near-tropics such as the Mediterranean area (Madeira and the Canary Islands), Egypt, southern Africa, and southern Florida. Local markets throughout its range are heaped high with the fragrant fruits in season and large quantities are exported to non-producing countries.

Altogether, the U.S. Department of Agriculture made 528 introductions from India, the Philippines, the West Indies and other sources from 1899 to 1937. Selection, naming and propagation of new varieties by government agencies and individual growers has been going on ever since. The Mango Form was created in 1938 through the joint efforts of the Broward County Home Demonstration Office of the University of Florida’s Cooperative Extension Service and the Fort Lauderdale Garden Club, with encouragement and direction from the University of Florida’s Subtropical Experiment Station (now the Agricultural Research and Education Center) in Homestead, and Mrs. William J. Krome, a pioneer tropical fruit grower. Meetings were held annually, whenever possible, for the exhibiting and judging of promising seedlings, and exchanging and publication of descriptions and cultural information.

Meanwhile, a reverse flow of varieties was going on. Improved mangos developed in Florida have been of great value in upgrading the mango industry in tropical America and elsewhere.

With such intense interest in this crop, mango acreage advanced in Florida despite occasional setbacks from cold spells and hurricanes. But with the expanding population, increased land values and cost and shortage of agricultural labor after World War II, a number of large groves were subdivided into real estate developments given names such as “Mango Heights” and “Mango Terrace”. There were estimated to be 7,000 acres (2,917 ha) in 27 Florida counties in 1954, over half in commercial groves. There were 4,000 acres (1,619 ha) in 1961. Today, mango production in Florida, on approximately 1,700 acres (688 ha), is about 8,818 tons (8,000 MT) annually in “good” years, and valued at $3 million. Fruits are shipped not only to northern markets but also to the United Kingdom, Netherlands, France and Saudi Arabia. In advance of the local season, quantities are imported into the USA from Haiti and the Dominican Republic, and, throughout the summer, Mexican sources supply mangos to the Pacific Coast consumer. Supplies also come in from India and Taiwan.

A mango seed from Guatemala was planted in California about 1880 and a few trees have borne fruit in the warmest locations of that state, with careful protection when extremely low temperatures occur.

Mangos have been grown in Puerto Rico since about 1750 but mostly of indifferent quality. A program of mango improvement began in 1948 with the introduction and testing of over 150 superior cultivars by the University of Puerto Rico. The south coast of the island, having a dry atmosphere, is best suited for mango culture and substantial quantities of mangos are produced there without the need to spray for anthracnose control. The fruits are plentiful on local markets and shipments are made to New York City where there are many Puerto Rican residents. A study of 16 cultivars was undertaken in 1960 to determine those best suited to more intense commercial production. Productivity evaluations started in 1965 and continued to 1972.

The earliest record of the mango in Hawaii is the introduction of several small plants from Manila in 1824. Three plants were brought from Chile in 1825. In 1899, grafted trees of a number of Indian varieties, including ‘Pairi’, were imported. Seedlings became widely distributed over the six major islands. In 1930, the ‘Haden’ was introduced from Florida and became established in commercial plantations. The local industry began to develop seriously after the importation of a series of monoembryonic cultivars from Florida. But Hawaiian mangos are prohibited from entry into mainland USA, Australia, Japan and some other countries, because of the prevalence of the mango seed weevil in the islands.

In Brazil, most mangos are produced in the state of Minas, Gerais where the crop amounts to 243,018 tons (22,000 MT) annually on 24,710 acres (10,000 ha). These are mainly seedlings, as are those of the other states with major mango crops–Ceará, Paraibá, Goias, Pernambuco, and Maranhao. Sao Paulo raises about 63,382 tons (57,500 MT) per year on 9,884 acres (4,000 ha). The bulk of the crop is for domestic consumption. In 1973, Brazil exported 47.4 tons (43 MT) of mangos to Europe.

Mango growing began with the earliest settlers in North Queensland, Australia, with seeds brought casually from India, Ceylon, the East Indies and the Philippines. In 1875, 40 varieties from India were set out in a single plantation. Over the years, selections have been made for commercial production and culture has extended to subtropical Western Australia.

There is no record of the introduction of the mango into South Africa but a plantation was set out in Durban about 1860. Production today probably has reached about 16,535 tons (15,000 MT) annually, and South Africa exports fresh mangos by air to Europe.

Kenya exports mature mangos to France and Germany and both mature and immature to the United Kingdom, the latter for chutney-making. Egypt produces 110,230 tons (100,000 MT) of mangos annually and exports moderate amounts to 20 countries in the Near East and Europe. Mango culture in the Sudan occupies about 24,710 acres (10,000 ha) producing a total of 66,138 tons (60,000 MT) per year.

India, with 2,471,000 acres (1,000,000 ha) of mangos (70% of its fruit-growing area) produces 65% of the world’s mango crop–9,920,700 tons (9,000,000 MT). In 1985, mango growers around Hyderabad sought government protection against terrorists who cut down mango orchards unless the owners paid ransom (50,000 rupees in one case). India far outranks all other countries as an exporter of processed mangos, shipping 2/3 of the total 22,046 tons (20,000 MT). Mango preserves go to the same countries receiving the fresh fruit and also to Hong Kong, Iraq, Canada and the United States. Following India in volume of exports are Thailand, 774,365 tons (702,500 MT), Pakistan and Bangladesh, followed by Brazil. Mexico ranks 5th with about 100,800 acres (42,000 ha) and an annual yield of approximately 640,000 tons (580,000 MT). The Philippines have risen to 6th place. Tanzania is 7th, the Dominican Republic, 8th and Colombia, 9th.

Leading exporters of fresh mangos are: the Philippines, shipping to Hong Kong, Singapore and Japan; Thailand, shipping to Singapore and Malaysia; Mexico, shipping mostly ‘Haden’ to the United States, 2,204 tons (2,000 MT), annually, also to Japan and Paris; India, shipping mainly ‘Alphonso’ and ‘Bombay’ to Europe, Malaya, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait; Indonesia, shipping to Hong Kong and Singapore; and South Africa shipping (60% ‘Haden’ and ‘Kent’) by air to Europe and London in mid-winter.

Chief importers are England and France, absorbing 82% of all mango shipments. Mango consumers in England are mostly residents of Indian origin, or English people who formerly lived in India.

The first International Symposium on Mango and Mango Culture, of the International Society for Horticultural Science, was held in New Delhi, India, in 1969 with a view to assembling a collection of germplasm from around the world and encouraging cooperative research on rootstocks and bearing behavior, hybridization, disease, storage and transport problems, and other areas of study.

Blooming is strongly affected by weather, dryness stimulating flowering and rainy weather discouraging it. In most of India, flowering occurs in December and January; in northern India, in January and February or as late as March. There are some varieties called “Baramasi” that flower and fruit irregularly throughout the year. The cultivar ‘Sam Ru Du’ of Thailand bears 3 crops a year–in January, June and October. In the drier islands of the Lesser Antilles, there are mango trees that flower and fruit more or less continuously all year around but never heavily at any time. Some of these are cultivars introduced from Florida where they flower and fruit only once a year. In southern Florida, mango trees begin to bloom in late November and continue until February or March, inasmuch as there are early, medium, and late varieties. During exceptionally warm winters, mango trees have been known to bloom 3 times in succession, each time setting and maturing fruit.

In the Philippines, various methods are employed to promote flowering: smudging (smoking), exposing the roots, pruning, girdling, withholding nitrogen and irrigation, and even applying salt. In the West Indies, there is a common folk practice of slashing the trunk with a machete to make the tree bloom and bear in “off” years. Deblos-soming (removing half the flower clusters) in an “on” year will induce at least a small crop in the next “off” year. Almost any treatment or condition that retards vegetative growth will have this effect. Spraying with growth-retardant chemicals has been tried, with inconsistent results. Potassium nitrate has been effective in the Philippines.

In India, the cultivar ‘Dasheri’, which is self incompatible, tends to begin blooming very early (December and January) when no other cultivars are in flower. And the early particles show a low percentage of hermaphrodite flowers and a high incidence of floral malformation. Furthermore, early blooms are often damaged by frost. It has been found that a single mechanical deblossoming in the first bud-burst stage, induces subsequent development of particles with less malformation, more hermaphrodite flowers, and, as a result, a much higher yield of fruits.

There is one cultivar, ‘Neelum’, in South India that bears heavily every year, apparently because of its high rate (16%) of hermaphrodite flowers. (The average for ‘Alphonso’ is 10%.) However, Indian horticulturists report great tree-to-tree variation in seedlings of this cultivar; in some surveys as much as 84% of the trees were rated as poor bearers. Over 92% of ‘Bangalora’ seedlings have been found bearing light crops.

Mango flowers are visited by fruit bats, flies, wasps, wild bees, butterflies, moths, beetles, ants and various bugs seeking the nectar and some transfer the pollen but a certain amount of self-pollination also occurs. Honeybees do not especially favor mango flowers and it has been found that effective pollination by honeybees would require 3 to 6 colonies per acre (6-12 per ha). Many of the unpollinated flowers are shed or fail to set fruit, or the fruit is set but is shed when very young. Heavy rains wash off pollen and thus prevent fruit setting. Some cultivars tend to produce a high percentage of small fruits without a fully developed seed because of unfavorable weather during the fruit-setting period.

Shy-bearing cultivars of otherwise desirable characteristics are hybridized with heavy bearers in order to obtain better crops. For example: shy-bearing ‘Himayuddin’ ´ heavy-bearing ‘Neelum’. Breeders usually hand-pollinate all the flowers that are open in a cluster, remove the rest, and cover the inflorescence with a plastic bag. But researchers in India have found that there is very little chance of contamination and that omitting the covering gives as much as 3.85% fruit set in place of 0.23% to 1.57% when bagged. Thus large populations of hybrids may be raised for study. One of the latest techniques involves grafting the male and female parents onto a chosen tree, then covering the panicles with a polyethylene bag, and introducing house flies as pollinators.

Indian scientists have found that pollen for crossbreeding can be stored at 32° F (0° C) for 10 hours. If not separated from the flowers, it remains viable for 50 hours in a humid atmosphere at 65° to 75° F (18.33° -23.09° C). The stigma is receptive 18 hours before full flower opening and, some say, for 72 hours after.

Washing the fruits immediately after harvest is essential, as the sap which leaks from the stem bums the skin of the fruit making black lesions which lead to rotting.

Some cultivars, especially ‘Bangalora’, ‘Alphonso’, and ‘Neelum’ in India, have much better keeping quality than others. In Bombay, ‘Alphonso’ has kept well for 4 weeks at 52° F (11.11° C); 6 to 7 weeks at 45° F (7.22° C). Storage at lower temperatures is detrimental inasmuch as mangos are very susceptible to chilling injury. Any temperature below 55.4° F (13° C) is damaging to ‘Kent’. In Florida, this is regarded as the optimum for 2 to 3 weeks storage. The best ripening temperatures are 70° to 75° F (21.11°-23.89° C).

Experiments in Florida have demonstrated that ‘Irwin’, ‘Tommy Atkins’ and ‘Kent’ mangos, held for 3 weeks at storage temperature of 55.4° F (13° C), 98% to 100% relative humidity and atmospheric pressure of 76 or 152 mmHg, ripened thereafter with less decay at 69.8° F (21° C) under normal atmospheric pressure, as compared with fruits stored at the same temperature with normal atmospheric pressure. Those stored at 152 mmHg took 3 to 5 days longer to ripen than those stored at 76 mmHg. Decay rates were 20% for ‘Tommy Atkins’ and 40% for ‘Irwin’. Spoilage from anthracnose has been reduced by immersion for 15 min in water at 125° F (51.67° C) or for 5 min at 132° F (55.56° C). Dipping in 500 ppm maleic hydrazide for 1 min and storing at 89.6° F (32° C) also retards decay but not loss of moisture. In South Africa, mangos are submerged immediately after picking in a suspension of benomyl for 5 min at 131° F (55° C) to control soft brown rot.

In Australia, mature-green ‘Kensington Pride’ mangos have been dipped in a 4% solution of calcium chloride under reduced pressure (250 mm Hg) and then stored in containers at 77° F (25° C) in ethylene-free atmosphere. Ripening was retarded by a week; that is, the treated fruits ripened in 20 to 22 days whereas controls ripened in 12 to 14 days. Eating quality was equal except that the calcium-treated fruits were found slightly higher in ascorbic acid.

Wrapping fruits individually in heat-shrinkable plastic film has not retarded decay in storage. The only benefit has been 3% less weight loss. Coating with paraffin wax or fungicidal wax and storing at 68° to 89.6° F (20° -32° C) delays ripening 1 to 2 weeks and prevents shriveling but interferes with full development of color.

Gamma irradiation (30 Krad) causes ripening delay of 7 days in mangos stored at room temperature. The irradiated fruits ripen normally and show no adverse effect on quality. Irradiation has not yet been approved for this purpose.

In India, large quantities of mangos are transported to distant markets by rail. To avoid excessive heat buildup and consequent spoilage, the fruits, padded with paper shavings, are packed in ventilated wooden crates and loaded into ventilated wooden boxcars. Relative humidity varies from 24% to 85% and temperature from 88° to 115° F (31.6°-46.6° C). These improved conditions have proved superior to the conventional packing of the fruits in Phoenix-palm-midrib or bamboo, or the newer pigeonpea-stem, baskets padded with rice straw and mango leaves and transported in steel boxcars, which has resulted in 20% to 30% losses from shriveling, unshapeliness and spoilage.

Green seedling mangos, harvested in India for commercial preparation of chutneys and pickles as well as for table use, are stored for as long as 40 days at 42° to 45° F (5.56°-7.22° C) with relative humidity of 85% to 99%. Some of these may be diverted for table use after a 2-week ripening period at 62° to 65° F (16.67° -18.13° C).

In India, South Africa and Hawaii, mango seed weevils, Sternochetus (Cryptorhynchus) mangiferae and S. gravis, are major pests, undetectable until the larvae tunnel their way out. The leading predators of the tree in India are jassid hoppers (Idiocerus spp.) variously attacking trunk and branches or foliage and flowers, and causing shedding of young fruits. The honeydew they excrete on leaves and flowers gives rise to sooty mold.

The mango-leaf webber, or “tent caterpillar”, Orthaga euadrusalis, has become a major problem in North India, especially in old, crowded orchards where there is excessive shade. Around Lucknow, ‘Dashehari’ is heavily infested by this pest; ‘Samarbehist’ (‘Chausa’) less. In South Africa, 11 species of scales have been recorded on the fruits. Coccus mangiferae and C. acuminatus are the most common scale insects giving rise to the sooty mold that grows on the honeydew excreted by the pests. In some areas, there are occasional outbreaks of the scales, Pulvinaria psidii, P. polygonata, Aulacaspis cinnamoni, A. tubercularis, Aspidiotus destructor and Leucaspis indica. In Florida, pyriform scale, Protopulvinaria Pyrformis, and Florida wax scale, Ceroplastes floridensis, are common, and the lesser snow scale, Pinnaspis strachani, infests the trunks of small trees and lower branches of large trees. Heavy attacks may result in cracking of the bark and oozing of sap.

The citrus thrips, Scirtothrips aurantii, blemishes the fruit in some mango-growing areas. The red-banded thrips, Selenothrips rubrocinctus, at times heavily infests mango foliage in Florida, killing young leaves and causing shedding of mature leaves. Mealybugs, Phenacoccus citri and P. mangiferae, and Drosicha stebbingi and D. mangiferae may infest young leaves, shoots and fruits. The mango stem borer, Batocera rufomaculata invades the trunk. Leaves and shoots are preyed on by the caterpillars of Parasa lepida, Chlumetia transversa and Orthaga exvinacea. Mites feed on mango leaves, flowers and young fruits. In Florida, the most common is the avocado red mite, Paratetranychus yothersii.

Mistletoe (Loranthus and Viscum spp.) parasitizes and kills mango branches in India and tropical America. Dr. B. Reddy, Regional Plant Production and Protection Officer, FAO, Bangkok, compiled an extensive roster of insects, mites, nematodes, other pests, fungi, bacteria and phanerogamic parasites in Southeast Asia and the Pacific Region (1975).

One of the most serious diseases of the mango is powdery mildew (Oidium mangiferae), which is common in most growing areas of India, occurs mostly in March and April in Florida. The fungus affects the flowers and causes young fruits to dehydrate and fall, and 20% of the crop may be lost. It is controllable by regular spraying. In humid climates, anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Glomerella cingulata) affects flowers, leaves, twigs, fruits, both young and mature. The latter show black spots externally and the corresponding flesh area is affected. Control measures must be taken in advance of flowering and regularly during dry spells. In Florida, mango growers apply up to 20 sprayings up to the cut-off point before harvesting. The black spots are similar to those produced by AIternaria sp. often associated with anthracnose in cold storage in India. Inside the fruits attacked by AIternaria there are corresponding areas of hard, corky, spongy lesions. Inasmuch as the fungus enters the stem-end of the fruit, it is combatted by applying Fungicopper paste in linseed oil to the cut stem and also by sterilizing the storage compartment with Formalin 1:20. A pre-harvest dry stem-end rot was first noticed on ‘Tommy Atkins’ in Mexico in 1973, and it has spread to all Mexican plantings of this cultivar causing losses of 10-80% especially in wet weather. Fusarium, Alternaria and Cladosporium spp. were prominent among associated fungi.

Malformation of inflorescence and vegetative buds is attributed to the combined action of Fusarium moniliforme and any of the mites, Aceria mangifera, Eriophyes sp., Tyrophagus castellanii, or Typhlodromus asiaticus. This grave problem occurs in Pakistan, India, South Africa and Egypt, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Mexico, Brazil and Venezuela, but not as yet in the Philippines. It is on the increase in India. Removing and burning the inflorescence has been the only remedy, but it has been found that malformation can be reduced by a single spray of NAA (200 mg in 50 ml alcohol with water added to make 1 liter) in October, and deblooming in early January.

There are 14 types of mango galls in India, 12 occurring on the leaves. The most serious is the axillary bud gall caused by Apsylla cistellata of the family Psyllidae.

In Florida, leaf spot is caused by Pestalotia mangiferae, Phyllosticta mortoni, and Septoria sp.; algal leaf spot, or green scurf by Cephaleuros virescens. In 1983, a new disease, crusty leaf spot, caused by the fungus, Zimmermaniella trispora, was reported as common on neglected mango trees in Malaya. Twig dieback and dieback are from infection by Phomopsis sp., Physalospora abdita, and P. rhodina. Wilt is caused by Verticillium alboatrum; brown felt by Septobasidium pilosum and S. pseudopedicellatum; wood rot, by Polyporus sanguineus; and scab by Elsinoe mangiferae (Sphaceloma mangiferae). Cercospora mangiferae attacks the fruits in the Congo.

A number of organisms in India cause white sap, heart rot, gray blight, leaf blight, white pocket rot, white spongy rot, sap rot, black bark and red rust. In South Africa, Asbergillus attacks young shoots and fruit rot is caused by A. niger. Gloeosporium mangiferae causes black spotting of fruits. Erwinia mangiferae and Pseudomonas mangiferaeindicae are sources of bacterial black spot in South Africa and Queensland. Bacterium carotovorus is a source of soft rot. Stem-end rot is a major problem in India and Puerto Rico from infection by Physalospora rhodina (Diplodia natalensis). Soft brown rot develops during prolonged cold storage in South Africa.

Leaf tip burn may be a sign of excess chlorides. Manganese deficiency is indicated by paleness and limpness of foliage followed by yellowing, with distinct green veins and midrib, fine brown spots and browning of leaf tips. Inadequate zinc is evident in less noticeable paleness of foliage, distortion of new shoots, small leaves, necrosis, and stunting of the tree and its roots. In boron deficiency, there is reduced size and distortion of new leaves and browning of the midrib. Copper deficiency is seen in paleness of foliage and severe tip-bum with gray-brown patches on old leaves; abnormally large leaves; also die-back of terminal shoots; sometimes gummosis of twigs and branches. Magnesium is needed when young trees are stunted and pale, new leaves have yellow-white areas between the main veins and prominent yellow specks on both sides of the midrib. There may also be browning of the leaf tips and margins. Lack of iron produces chlorosis in young trees.

*Minimum and maximum levels of food constituents derived from various analyses made in Cuba, Central America, Africa and India.

Puerto Rican analyses of 30 cultivars showed b-carotene as ranging from a low of 4,171 I.U./100 g in ‘Stringless Peach’ to a high of 7,900 I.U. in ‘Carrie’. Ascorbic acid ranged from 3.43 mg/100 g in ‘Keitt’ to 62.96 in ‘Julie’.

**According to analyses made in India and Cuba.

Indian analyses of the mango kernel reveal the amino acids–alanine, arginine, aspartic acid, cystine, glutamic acid, glycine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, proline, serine, threonine, tyrosine, valine, at levels lower than in wheat and gluten. Tannin content may be 0.12-0.18% or much higher in certain cultivars.

*It is said to be equal to rice in food value, if tannin-free.

**According to various analyses made in India.

The leaves contain the glucoside, mangiferine. In India, cows were formerly fed mango leaves to obtain from their urine euxanthic acid which is rich yellow and has been used as a dye. Since continuous intake of the leaves may be fatal, the practice has been outlawed.

When mango trees are in bloom, it is not uncommon for people to suffer itching around the eyes, facial swelling and respiratory difficulty, even though there is no airborne pollen. The few pollen grains are large and they tend to adhere to each other even in dry weather. The stigma is small and not designed to catch windborne pollen. The irritant is probably the vaporized essential oil of the flowers which contains the sesquiterpene alcohol, mangiferol, and the ketone, mangiferone.

Mango wood should never be used in fireplaces or for cooking fuel, as its smoke is highly irritant.

Mango trees are evergreens. Their leaves make superior mulch.

The civilized grafted mango trees we have now are nothing like the ancient, wild trees whose small fruit tasted like turpentine and had the texture of nylon yarn. The old test of a mango fruit was it’s stringiness, it’s fiber content. You used to judge a mango by how much dental floss it had. The advent of the science of grafting changed all that.

Mango fruit from seeds is never the same as the mother tree’s fruit. So the seed out of a great tasting fruit will likely produce a tree yielding horrible tasting fibrous fruit. The only certain way to be sure you’ll have tasty fruit is to propagate (by grafting, and in some cases cloning) an existing particular, individual tree (DNA-wise) whose quality is proven.

The odds of a seed producing worthwhile fruit are very, very small.

All mango trees grown from any seed are properly called “Wild Mango Trees”.

All good tasting mango varieties are grafted. It’s easy with younger trees to see the graft…just look near the base of the trunk and you can see a scar that circles all the way around the trunk. Older trees have the scar too if they are grafted, it’s just harder to see.

Watch out for grafted trees that have been frozen back to the stump and all the top (good) part of the graft (scion) has died of the freeze and only the rootstock has survived and branched…such trees, if they do live and re-grow, produce very inferior fruit. It is a good citizen’s duty to kill these “fruiting wounded” so that people sampling mangoes for the first time will not taste their unpleasant “free” fruits and form an aversion to all mangoes.

Grafting Is When You Artificially Attach a Tiny Proto-Limb (Bud) of a Desirable Tree to the Lower Trunk of a Similar Tree, Usually a Sapling, Thereby Prolonging the Life and Fruiting Ability of the Desirable Tree. THIS CAN RESULT IN A SINGLE DESIRABLE TREE’S DNA BEING USED FOR AN INDEFINITELY LONG TIME! Like possibly thousands of years!

Sometimes young trees sprout limbs from BELOW the graft’s scar, always kill these limbs because they will produce bad tasting fruits and weaken the good scion above the graft.

Grafting occurs in nature, for example, when two trees growing too close together constantly rub limbs in the wind scraping them both bare at one spot and they both ‘bleed’ sap and when the windy season ends they are still pressed together and grow ‘joined’ together over months into one tree. Grafted. There is this type of ‘joining’ in root systems too.

Most of the mango varieties you find in the supermarket are not ancient. (The best mangoes never make it to a grocery store.) These modern varieties taste great and are resistant to some problems. The newest varieties are often ‘designed’ to taste like other fruits such as coconuts, lemons, vanilla, ice cream etc.

Generally, modern mango tree varieties are superior in every way to the ancient ones.

Except the Nam Doc Mai, a treasured survivor from ancient Siam (Thailand), which politely delivers indescribably delicious fruit, one limb-full at a time, over the course of the year, thus providing a long, manageable supply rather than bestowing a few hundred pounds of mangoes during about six weeks time as is usual with most varieties.

Here are some APPROXIMATE dates of recognition:
Haden……….1898
Tommy Adkins………..1915
Kent………………1925
Zill…………………..1940

Temperature is very important with mango trees. Cold weather is a major health factor. They die or suffer great damage at 32 F. They go temporarily dormant at about 40 F. So you must learn the normal yearly temperature pattern for where the tree will be.

The idea that there is a “coldhardy” rootstock or cultivar is absurd. All mango trees behave exactly the same way as regards 32 F. They die or suffer great damage.

Here are some cold weather ideas. In some places the threat of frost or freeze is normal only at night for a few nights each year. You can either keep the tree in a container and drag it inside during the hours of frost or freeze or plant it in the ground where you will have to cover it up for only the duration of the frost or freeze. If you cover it be sure to fasten the ’skirt’ to the ground all around with sod staples so as to trap the ground warmth radiating upward, you can add a light bulb for added warmth or even a little electric space heater…just watch out for rain. Also where the covering tarp/plastic touches the tree the freeze will ‘burn’ it, no big deal usually, but you can get elaborate and build a skeleton frame to stretch the cover over, just remember the wind. Remember to open a vent hole or uncover the mango tree in the morning after temperatures get back above 40 F. You could ‘cook’ it if you forget.

In Northern Florida they used to plant mango trees right up against the South side of the house where the hot water heater was, so the tree kept warm at night. During cold weather, even if there was a killer freeze and some limbs died, the trunk above the graft was still warm and would sprout new limbs and yield delicious fruit in the Spring.

In an emergency, you can heat just the trunk, (it will save the graft and the tree), you will be sacrificing all but one of the scion’s branches. But it will save the life of a grafted tree.

There are several ways to heat it: put hot wet towels, electric heating pads, an electric blanket, or hot water bottles, etc. wrapped around the trunk clear up to a few inches ABOVE the first branch. And put some warm water on the ground near the base of the trunk. Remember you must save at least one limb (small is OK) ABOVE the graft or else the tree is worthless.

It is possible to use sprinklers to spray water onto a tree to save it. BUT you must not stop spraying until the temperature is up to 36 F. Don’t just stop the water at dawn. You can try to divert the flowing water away from the base of the tree and the roots with plastic sheeting, (mango trees like dry winters).

In places where it freezes all night and all day you must keep the tree inside the house near a big South facing window (for light) until the frost threat is over. Lots of light is the main concern. You can phone your local NOAA weather station and they will read you the historically earliest and latest freeze dates in your area so you know about what date to drag it inside. Of course a sunny, heated greenhouse or pool house is nice!

Mango trees like a dry spell for a couple months in the winter.

Water the tree every 3 days for the first month if you plant it in the earth. Then every week for the next 2 months. Then don’t water it any more except for dry spells.

When it’s mature, don’t water very much or fertilize at all during the time when fruit are forming or ripening, you’ll burst the fruit or dilute the flavor.

Don’t let small trees have fruit for 2-4 years. Keep sniping the fruits off when they are golf ball size…fruiting drains the vigor and growth.

Have you ever seen a mango tree with more weight in flowers than tree? Yes, it happens. The excess weight of flowers or fruits can break off limbs and really ruin a tree. You may have to support young trees and trees that have a bumper crop with lumber or ropes. Be creative and over-engineer everything. Don’t ding up the bark, wrap old water hose or panty hose so it’s cushioned where the support touches the tree.

Pruning to remove dangerous excess weight of inflorescences or fruits is OK. Otherwise forget it. You can really mess up the life of a tree fast with just a few uneducated cuts.

Any needed cuts to the tree should be made with sharp clean tools.

Some growers use a hand held one quart propane torch (hardware store) to quickly sterilize the knife or scissors after each cut so as to not spread virus disease.

Don’t burn mango leaves or cuttings, the smoke is toxic. Also don’t allow animals to eat the leaves.

For the first 3 years apply about one level tablespoon of 12-5-9 (scattered) per foot of tree height in fall after all the fruit have been picked. After the tree is three years old start using 4-4-8 with trace elements, apply about 1/4 cup once yearly after all fruit are picked. Fertilizer is mixed with a gallon of warm water and applied to the DAMP soil, not dry, not wet. Apply about a quart daily for four days. Mango trees need less fertilizer than the same area of lawn grass!

A ‘citrus’ type all purpose spray (lots of different brands, but we recommend Exxon 435 soluble oil) is good to spray every month with the Kocide (copper sulfate).

And get yourself a decent sprayer that makes a fine mist.

And get some ‘Kocide’ (brand name for copper sulfate) from a garden shop and spray the trees thoroughly in humid/warm conditions twice a week! Follow the directions on the bag. Add a teaspoonful of dish detergent in each sprayer load to make it stick.

Anthracnose is the condition that spoils the fruit. Look for black dots on the fruit and leaves and the growing tips die curling black. Spray Kocide. Spray twice a week. In Florida or other humid places spray twice a week all year. Don’t let the copper sulfate drip on to the roots, use plastic and rags or paper towels to keep it off the soil over the roots. It is good for the above ground parts only.

Mango trees come from  poor, sandy soil with alternating monsoons and droughts. Lots of hot sun. Few nutrients. Since it survives under very harsh conditions you need only keep it from freezing. It’s close cousin is the cashew nut tree.

If your mango tree’s in a pot, check the moisture every week. Stick your finger into the soil, is it damp? Stick your finger into one of the holes around the bottom of the pot, is there moisture at all? Water thoroughly only if dry. The soil should go from very wet to very dry, then back to very wet. And so forth.

DO NOT TRY TO KEEP THE SOIL IN ANY POTTED PLANT OR TREE SLIGHTLY DAMP ALL THE TIME.
Go back and forth from real wet to real dry.
REASON: BECAUSE THE VARIOUS PATHOGENS CANNOT ADAPT TO THE EXTREME CHANGES IN MOISTURE AND IT KILLS LOTS OF THEM. And with no chemicals and no labor!

Roots need air just like they need water.

It’s always good to “spin” a potted plant halfway around every month so as to give it sunlight equally all around and help it grow straight.

FOR PLANTS, SUNLIGHT IS FOOD.
Not enough means less growth, less flowering and less fruiting. The more hours of daily direct sunlight…the more tree growth, flowering and fruiting. Also if you reposition the potted tree suddenly, sunburn and leaf dropping can occur  because of any change in the amount of light. Sometimes a little leaf dropping isn’t too bad. Acclimation to lighting changes takes weeks and months.

If you want to keep a non-dwarf mango tree small, don’t up-pot it. Make it pot bound.

Just like Bonsai?

Yes, Mango trees are perfect for Bonsai. They were some of the first subjects for the art form. Imagine a six inch tall mango tree that’s 30 years old and has a ripe 3 lb. fruit on it!

(“Julie” is the true dwarf and will get only 8 ft. high. “Cogshall” is the semi-dwarf mango tree and can reach 12 ft. Also there is a new “Hawaiian Dwarf Mango” to try!)

If you are serious about mangoes, then you’ll want to know about proper spacing in a grove.  Plant “Keitt” variety, space them about 35 ft. apart in long rows running North and South. Space the rows about 45 ft. apart so as to leave space to drive a tractor pulling a big grove sprayer. “Keitt” fruits get to 4 lbs., ship well, taste terrific, have no fiber at all, are resistant to anthracnose, it’s a huge tall tree, rave, rave.

Go to the library and look up “Mangifera Indica L.” in the card catalogue and in the Reader’s Guide. Join the local Garden Club.

Visit plantations in India, China, Mexico, Pakistan, Indonesia, Thailand, Nigeria, Brazil, Philippines, Haiti and South Africa. Even the Bahamas Islands are now exporting!

Mango fruits cost $1.00 or more each in the supermarkets.

Excuse us, but it needs to be said: there is no such thing as a “mango poop”; they are not a laxative.

In many places the mango fruit is prepared and cooked while green and eaten as a carbohydrate.

More mangos are sold on Earth than any other fruit. Any other fruit. Think about it.